Self-Reports: How Questions Shape Answers

1. Self-Reports: How Questions Shape Answers Source: Schwartz, N. (1999). Self-Reports: How the Questions Shape the Answers. American Psychologist, 54, 93-105.

2. If you want to get information from somebody, just ask them • Self-reports provide considerable information for behavioral scientists • The art of asking questions is critical for getting good information • Small changes in wording of questions can lead to significant changes in answers

3. Making Sense of Questions:Four Linguistic Maxims • Relation—What is the context of the question? • Quantity—How much information is appropriate in an answer? • Manner—What is the most obvious meaning of the question? • Quality—Is the response “true”?

4. Response Alternatives • Open versus closed response formats • In open response formats, respondents must interpret the meaning of the question • Different people may consider open format questions differently

5. Response Alternatives • Frequency scales and reference periods • Frequency ranges provided in the questions make a difference • Temporal reference periods affect how people respond • Concurrent versus retrospective reference periods lead to different interpretations of a question

6. Response Alternatives • Rating Scales • Numeric values on the rating scale make a different in how people interpret questions • People interpret phrases like “Not at all” on a rating scale very differently, depending on the numeric range of the scale

7. Understanding the Meaning of the Question • What is the literal meaning of the question? • What is the pragmatic meaning of the question? To answer a question, a respondent needs to address both #1 and #2 above

8. Question Context • What is the researcher’s epistemic interest? Respondents try to figure out the researcher’s underlying question, based on whatever clues are available.

9. Question Context • Adjacent Questions The information a respondent has just encountered affects the willingness to provide an answer

10. Reporting on One’s Behavior Frequency Alternatives • Behavioral Reports—The scale of responses affects a respondent’s choice • Subsequent Judgments—A respondent’s choice in an early question might affect a judgment later on • Users of Respondents’ Reports—Interpretations of reports may be affected by the scale provided to the respondent

11. Implications • Self-report research involves an exchange of communication among all parties • Some changes in interpretations of questions arise from subtle changes in wording • The wording of questions provides information to respondents