Psychology of Women

1. Psychology of Women PSYC 330 Fall 2010 Tammy Lynn Kirichenko

2. Calendar Description • An examination of the major theories, research methodologies, and data in the field of the psychology of women. Philosophical values of feminism and the psychological impact of women's historical roles in society will be considered throughout. Prerequisites: PSYC 101, 102, and two 200 level courses in the social sciences (or permission of the instructor)

3. Syllabus

4. Questions

5. Other Stuff

6. Introductions

8. Why Psychology of WOMEN? “An examination of the psychology of women looks at the ways women’s shared experience is distinct from that of men” (Lips, 1999)

9. Why do you think that there is not a Psychology of Mencourse?

10. Potential Topics • Gender Theories • Stereotypes • Friendship & Other Relationships • Female Aggression • Violence Against Women • The Culture of Youth & Beauty • Communication (differences between women and men) • Portrayals of Females in the Media • Sexuality • Power & Leadership • Women and Mental Illness • Other?

11. Selected Discussion Topics (example) • Should women and girls (of any age) be encouraged to participate in beauty pageants? • Discuss (and jot down your conclusions)

12. Positives: Competition can be healthy Pride in accomplishment Scholarships Opportunity to do humanitarian work Okay if it is the girl/woman’s own choice Negatives: OVERLY competitive Many girls are ‘forced’ into it Focus on superficial qualities Can promote unhealthy behaviours (e.g., lead to eating disorders) Should women and girls (of any age) be encouraged to participate in beauty pageants?

13. Introduction

14. Research Background From Princess to Sex-Object: A Content Analysis of Portrayals of Femininity in Popular Media Directed Toward Girls and Young Women

15. Research Background • content analysis of various media • Clothing • Disney Animated Features (princess) • Lyrics • Music Videos • Toys (product descriptions)

16. Purposes to examine popular media and the ways in which females are portrayed in terms of (a) physical appearance (b) gender-stereotypical roles (c) sexuality (d) values and personality characteristics (e) expectations

18. Objectification Theory

19. Objectification Theory • ‘Objectification theory’ was proposed by Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) as their attempt to explain how females are socialised to internalise observers’ perspectives of their bodies • This, in turn, leads to a preoccupation with one’s own physical appearance (self-objectification) • They argue: ‘When objectified, individuals are treated as bodies and, in particular, as bodies that exist for the use and pleasure of others’ (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998, p. 269).

20. Consequences of Objectification • The consequences of exposure to objectifying images, words, or ideas often manifest in ways that are not always easily identifiable • For instance, internalising an observer’s perspective can increase a female’s shame and anxiety about her own physical appearance/attractiveness, decrease her awareness of internal bodily states, and, subsequently, inhibit her ability for peak motivational states (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) • This lack of internal awareness may make an individual more vulnerable to developing mental health problems such as unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)

21. Sexual Objectification Sexual objectification occurs when a woman’s body is treated as an object (especially an object that exists for the pleasure and use of others), and is illustrated interpersonally through gaze or ‘checking out’, and in the representation of women in the media … very few women are able to avoid contexts that may be potentially objectifying. (Slater & Tiggemann, 2002, p. 343)

22. Objectifying Media Images • This is apparent in the media • e.g., music lyrics and videos, magazine covers and advertisements, television, movies, etc. • Women often put themselves on display (e.g., wearing revealing clothing, dancing or acting provocatively in order to get attention) • Women often refer to themselves in self-objectifying ways

23. Examples • ‘advertising’ that one is an object to be stared at, lusted after, or touched • Music lyrics & videos • Clothing

24. Lyrics • Examples of objectification in lyrics • Self-objectification • Being objectified by others • What messages do such songs transmit to • Girls? • Boys?

25. Music Videos • close ups of body parts: breasts, buttocks, groin, midriff • male gaze/‘checking out’ • dancing/gyrating • touching oneself seductively/sexually suggestive

26. Clothing Text • Seven themes emerged from analyses of the clothing text (/97) • The text in each category included words related to • Innocence (9) • Naughtiness (11) • Objectification (29) – 30% • ‘Princessy’ (22) • Spoiled (12) • Superiority (7) • Competitiveness (7)

28. Should we close our eyes … ? • merely encountering words (visually) that describe one’s physical appearance activated a state of self-objectification in women (and led to greater appearance anxiety; see Roberts & Gettman, 2004) • imagine all of the situations in which females are exposed to such words … • … and, therefore, are at risk for feelings of self-shame, disgust, anxiety, and unattractiveness …

29. Thoughts?

30. Social Identity

31. Social Identity • We think of ourselves in terms of various identities. Some of these may include: • Gender • Ethnicity • Nationality • Religion • Sexual Orientation • Talents • Accomplishments • Appearance • Relationships

32. Gender Theories • One of the first of these identities that develops is gender identity • Gender identity is the personal construction and acceptance of the self as male or female (Bukatko & Daehler, 2003), which most children acquire by the age of three (Santrock, 2004). • Gender roles, however, are socially constructed sets of expectations that influence how females and males think, feel, and behave (Santrock, 2004). • Although gender-role socialisation is a life-long process, it is particularly noticeable during children’s formative years (Marliene, 1999).

33. 1. Psychoanalytic/Identification • From an early age, girls learn to feel inferior to and envious of males • Freud: • Development and resolution of the Oedipus Complex; Castration anxiety; Penis envy • Horney: • Unconscious fear of vaginal penetration • Girls are valued less than boys and are treated as though their sexuality is the most important part of their identity

34. 2. Social Learning • From birth, children are treated in gender-specific ways, and parents and other adults reinforce gender-specific attitudes and behaviours. • Gender identity, therefore, is formed through imitation, direct reinforcement for sex-typed activities, and vicarious learning from peer or adult same-sex models (Burr, 1998). • Bandura (1986) refers to these phenomena as ‘differential reinforcement’ and ‘observational learning’.

35. 3. Cognitive Developmental • Children mature through interaction with their environment and take an active role in organising their world; they create schemas (i.e., mental categories) that are fluid and that emerge through interaction with their social environment (Marliene, 1999) • Kohlberg (1966, as cited in Levy & Carter, 1989) proposed several stages of gender development: • gender identity: children are capable of labelling themselves and others by gender (based on physical features); • gender stability: children understand that gender does not change over time; and • gender constancy: children understand that gender is constant across time and situations, and that it is independent from what they wear or how they behave.

36. 4. Gender Schema/Enculturated Lens Theory • The development of gender identity is embedded in the socio-historical context of each culture, and culture operates as a lens through which gender identity and roles are defined and passed on from one generation to the next (Bem, 1993). • Gender schema theorists consider both cognitive developmental and social learning theories (i.e., schemas are socialised cognitive networks of sex and gender roles) as components of gender schema theory. • Gender schemacity refers to judgements about the social world as being organised into female and male categories (Ruble & Stangor, 1986). Individuals with strong gender schemas are more susceptible to stereotypic perceptions and behaviours, whereas gender aschematic individuals tend to be less bound by stereotypical roles and perceptions (Bem, 1999; Ruble & Stangor, 1986). • Although children learn about their own sex and sex-/gender roles primarily through interactions with others (e.g., caregivers, siblings), they also internalise gender-role stereotypes from books, songs, television, and movies (Thorne, 1993), and learn sex-typed behaviour from these ‘symbolic’ models (Burr, 1998).

37. Stereotypes

38. Gender Stereotypes • Gender stereotypes differ from many racial stereotypes in that people often want to confirm them. Many men want to be “masculine” (assertive and dominant); many women want to be “feminine” (gentle and self-less). Not only do people often internalize, value, and agree with sex roles and gender stereotypes, but they also feel societal pressure to conform. (Worchel, Cooper, Goethals, & Olson, 2000, p. 212)

39. Stereotypes: Roles • Women are • Nurturers • Domestic • Occupations • Teachers, nurses, secretaries • Other examples?

40. Stereotypes: Attitudes & Behaviours • Women are preoccupied with their appearance • Women are overly emotional • Weak • Dependent • Need to be rescued • Women are … ?

41. Media Models • Childhood • toys, books, audio-visual media, role models and adult influences, computers • Adolescence • books, television & movies, magazines, music videos, “role models” (e.g. actors, models, musicians), fashion, video games, internet • Adulthood • values, stereotypes, portrayals are still being reinforced (e.g., ‘reality’ television) • internalized  cumulative effect • Prince Charming (aka “Mr. Right”), the “fairy tale wedding”

42. The Princess Phenomenon • Fairy tales • Books, dolls, tiaras, castles • Disney • Books, movies, video games, merchandise • Clothing • T-shirts, jewelry, accessories • Electronics • DVD players, televisions, ipods, cell phone covers • Household appliances and accessories • Toasters, dishes, bedding, bathroom decor • Movies • A Cinderella Story; Mean Girls; The Princess Diaries

43. Television • Commercials (e.g., toothpaste/mouthwash) • Reality Shows (e.g., The Bachelor) • Other?