Yanomamo

1. Yanomamo Jungle Tribal Organization

2. Geography • Live in Northern Brazil and Southern Venezuela • Live in dense tropical forest • Thick canopy that keeps a good deal of light out • Thick scrub brush and vines at ground level • Hot and humid with regular rainfall

3. Background • Tribal society composed of ~22,500 individuals • Around 250 villages in the entirety of their territory • Typically they are very far away from one another • Sometimes friendly towards one another but sometimes not

4. Contact • First contact may have occurred during the early 1600s with European traders • However, this is unclear • There was more prolonged and continuing contact during the height of the slave trade • Much of the contact was with missionaries • More modern contact has been with gold miners • Very problematic for the Yanomamo

5. Villages • Can contain as few as 40 individuals or as many as 300 • The overall size of the village will also take into account the number of visitors that may be expected • Have to provide them with a space to stay • The living space (called Shabono) is built from material gathered from the plentiful jungle environment

6. Villages • Vines and leaves are used for thatching • Requires constant maintenance • Provide only a small amount of protection from the rain • Have to be burned down when too many insects get into it after a couple years

7. Villages • The Shabono consists of a single shared roof that is then divided into a number of different family spaces • This structure surrounds a large open dirt plaza • Village sites are usually chosen with an eye towards which resources will be readily available to the occupants

8. Villages • Sometimes a large wooden fence or defensive barrier will be constructed to keep hostile outsiders at bay • This is particularly important if you live relatively close to a known enemy

9. Subsistence • Used to believe that the Yanomamo only hunted and gathered their food • Now we know that they grow a portion of their diet as well • As much as 80% of their food is grown in their own village gardens • Gardens are prepared by slashing and burning the chosen patch of land • Each family has its own garden • Size is based upon the number of individuals in the family

10. Subsistence • Crops: • Plantains • Manioc • Taro • Sweet Potato • Cane (for weaponry) • Tobacco • Widespread use by everyone in the village • Cotton

11. Subsistence • Hunting and gathering does play a large role though • Hunting: • Fishing near rivers • Birds • Monkeys • Pigs • Deer • Armadillos • Small rodents • Gathering • Various fruits • Vegetables • Honeycombs and Honey

12. Hunting Tools • Poisoned arrow are used • Palm wood arrows are dipped into a muscle relaxant called Curare • Point of the arrow is carved so that it breaks off in the skin • The actual shaft of the arrow is quite long and may be easily mistaken for a spear • Poisoned arrow tips are popular trade items as well

13. Political and Social Organization • Generally egalitarian society • Some exceptions: • Women hold a lower social status than men • Men can gain increased prestige through particular achievements • A head-man is also commonplace among the Yanomamo • Usually is the leader of the largest family group in the village • Usually is more of a representative to other villages and outsiders • Has limited power among the villagers • Has to lead by example

14. Alliances • The maintenance of good relations is of central importance in Yanomamo village life • Better to have allies than enemies... especially close by • If you are an ally then you have to provide shelter for other villagers that are fleeing an attack • Can last for a long time • Usually the debt that is incurred by a prolonged stay is paid in women from the fleeing group

15. Alliances • A number of alliances is very important for the Yanomamo • There is always an enemy that might attack you • Have to have a fall-back location if you can’t stand and fight • However, there is very little trust between allies

16. Alliances • Delicate balance when forming an alliance • Have to appear strong enough to repel an attack but also have to appear somewhat deferential and respectful to gain allies • Usually initiated through a feast or a large trade • Marriage is another popular route, and is commonly used as a way of establishing alliances

17. Economics • Trading • Reciprocity is the norm among the Yanomamo • When an item is traded another item of equal value must be traded in return • This trade is not instantaneous • The initial trade occurs and then after a period of time the trade is reciprocated • Sometimes a village will claim to be the sole provider of an item • This allows the villages trading partners to save face because they are dependent upon this one “unique” item • Can say “Well they’re the only ones who have it, so that’s why we trade with them”

18. Feasting Activity! • Huge social occasions • However, violence is always a possibility • The men usually prepare the food for these events • Lots of extra hunting and gathering is required to ensure that everyone has enough • The host village prepares itself: • Everyone cleans up • The compound is also cleaned

19. Feasting • When guests arrive there is an elaborate welcoming ritual • The lead guest walks into the center of the clearing of the village and shows his peaceful intent • Then the guest and the head man chant and dance together • After this is completed the rest of the guest village comes on over • Not just a mob scene but a very formal and ritualized activity that is accompanied by more dancing and chanting • Sometimes ritualized fights do break out • But this rarely results in death…although it does happen • These ritualized and violent activities act as a regulator to prevent escalation into all out combat

20. Gender • Yanomamo society is dominated by men • As far as women: • Start working at a very young age • Taught that they are of lower status than men • Promised to an older man for marriage at a young age as well • No room for choice, totally arranged marriage • Doesn’t start living with him until puberty

21. Gender • Physical Abuse of women: • Considered commonplace among the Yanomamo • Can be abused for preparing a meal too late or for a suspected affair or any other range of potential ‘offenses’ • Actual abuse can consist of strikes with a piece of fire wood all the way up to arrow wounds and murder • Women rely on their brothers for protection in this regard • Only use protection for particularly hostile husbands • Women gain respect as they age and a greater degree of safety both within the village as well as in the outside world

22. Children • Boys • Often encouraged to abuse girls from a young age • Told to hit people (specifically girls) whenever they are angry • Unlike girls, boys will be free to enjoy the pleasures of childhood until 17 or 18 years old • Children of both sexes are in danger of being attacked by evil spirits • Much more so than older people • This is because their own spirit is weaker than that of a more mature individual

23. Yanomamo Violence • Sometimes confrontations occur over a variety of issues • This may result in a Club Fight • Clubs = long wooden poles • Can escalate and involve the entire village as individuals start joining sides in the conflict • Sometimes these arguments grow into all out warfare • This leads to raids

24. Yanomamo Violence • Raids • Objective: • Kill as many of the enemy villagers as possible • Escape undetected • Incur no casualties on your side • Occasionally women will also be captured and brought back to the attackers village • Raids may even be initiated for this sole purpose

25. Yanomamo Violence • However, it must be noted that this violent activity may not necessarily be as widespread as previous reports (from Chagnon) have indicated • Many anthropologists believe that while the violence does occur, it is only a small part of an otherwise peaceful people

26. Spiritual Belief • Oration is highly prized • In Yanomamo belief the universe is composed of Four distinct layers: 4th Layer 3rd Layer 2nd Layer 1st Layer

27. Spiritual Belief • 4th Layer • This might be where everything originated • Nothing here now

28. Spiritual Belief • 3rd Layer • The Sky • People can only see the bottom of this layer • This is where the stars hang from • The top of this layer might look just as the rest of the earth does • Thought that it rests very close to the surface of the earth • This is where the spirits of the Yanomamo ancestors live

29. Spiritual Belief • 2nd Layer • This is where we live • Created when part of the sky fell down • Next layer created when this layer fell and pushed a village down into the earth

30. Spiritual Belief • 1st Layer • Pushed down into the earth when the sky layer fell • The villagers were separated form their hunting ground and had no food to eat • Turned to cannibalism • These underworld inhabitants used to be an amalgam of human, spirit and animal • Now totally spirit beings • The Yanomamo fear being sent down into this place to be eaten • This is where their taboo against eating raw or undercooked flesh originates • Associated with cannibalism

31. Spiritual Belief • Mythology • The inhabitants of the last layer of the universe are what make up the subject of many Yanomamo stories • Responsible for creating many animals and plants • These stories are told with great fanfare and embellishment • Pride in their culture is expressed

32. Spiritual Belief • Concept of the Soul • The soul is what the Yanomamo fear being consumed by the spirits in the underworld • Different parts of the soul: • Will • Part Freed during Cremation • Chest Soul • Dual Soul

33. Spiritual Belief • Will • Makes the journey into the sky layer • Here it is judged and sent either to a nice relaxing place or to a place filled with fire

34. Spiritual Belief • Part Freed during Cremation • Lives in the jungle • Causes evil in the world

35. Spiritual Belief • Chest Soul • Most important part • If it is stolen or attacked then the individual can become sick and die

36. Spiritual Belief • Dual Soul • Inside the person • Part of the persons spirit • Part that is seen in photographs • Outside the person • An animal that leads a similar life and does things at the same time as its human counterpart

37. Spiritual Belief • Sickness • This is caused by spirits called Hekura • They eat a part of your soul • Shamans will use their own soul to try and save you • Many thousands of these spirits • Can be either male or female • Either way they are always very attractive • The shamans, in turn, must also present themselves as very attractive in order to get their attention • Variety of personalities

38. Spiritual Belief • Shamans: • Can only be men • Anyone can be one • Not dependent on status • Very rigorous training • Long fast • No sex • Have to learn how to attract the invading spirits to get them out of a sick persons body • These spirits then enter the body of the shaman, who must keep them happy • Drugs and other hallucinogens are always used by shamans • Cannot get in touch with the spirits without them

39. Spiritual Belief • Death • Bodies are cremated after death • A single person stays and watches the body to make sure it is completely burned • The remaining bones are then placed in a hollow log • These remains are then ground into a powder and redistributed into gourds • These gourds are saved for a larger ceremony in which others from different villages will ritually consume them in a special soup • The ashes left in the hollow log will also be consumed in a soup

40. Modern Issues • Although many Yanomamo groups have been in contact with outside forces for a long time, some groups have yet to actually interact with foreigners • Disease has played a large role in the reduction of Yanomamo populations throughout their territory • 1987 Gold Rush • Miners came in with weaponry and construction equipment • Took the Yanomamo’s land • Polluted their environment with mercury and other toxins • Trails and streams that connect various communities are being destroyed • Leads to isolated villages with no way to contact other members of their society • Massacre occurred in 1993 in which the bodies were desecrated • Severe implications for the afterlife • Many political hurdles remain for the Yanomamo and there has historically been an unwillingness to help from the governments involved