Cognitive Symbiosis Science Literacy Potential Insights for Advancements in Science Curriculum, Instructional Resources

1. Cognitive Symbiosis—Science & Literacy Potential Insights for Advancements inScience Curriculum, Instructional Resources, Teaching, and Assessment Larry D. Yore University of Victoria AIMS Project Conference National Taiwan Normal University February 3, 2007

2. 2 Big Ideas Misconceptions Insights about language’s roles in cognition from misconceptions Science literacy Implications — curriculum development, teaching, and assessment Design considerations References

3. 3 How well do we – or our children – understand basic science concepts after we/they pass the test?(Annenberg Foundation: Private Universe) What causes the seasons and the phases of the moon? Elliptical orbit — ellipse and diagram Indirect light Confusion of eclipse and phases Many ideas stored as isolated ‘info bits’ rather than well-organized conceptual networks

4. 4 What appears to cause these misconceptions? Science is unnatural sometimes and counter-intuitive to common sense and reality. Language used to describe and explain science can be misleading for the non-science audience. “Come look out the window at the tree.” Visual material can be misleading and distorted. Conversion of 3D solids to 2D projects: Globe to wall map Instructional emphasis: Nearly circular vs. elliptical orbit Metaphors and analogies can be misleading.

5. 5 Words are only labels for experiences and mental images. No direct connection implied – memorizing the spelling does not lead to the meaning. Amoeba Direct connection in the root words or combining forms can be helpful. Carbohydrates – hydrates of carbon (CH2O)X Some words connect to different meanings in home, school, and scientific languages:3-Language problem. Vacuum Theory

6. 6 Language has a culturalsub-text. Not all cultures ascribe to same worldview of nature and naturally occurring events. Traditional worldview: Anthropomorphic, magic, mystic, spiritual, etc. Scientific worldview: Mechanistic, rational, testable, physical causality, etc. Some linguistic or cultural groups lack anchors to science language forms and terms. Asian: Argument is disrespectful of elders, etc. Southern African: Lack words for argument and other science ideas, etc. Some sub-groups have distinct views, values, and beliefs that do not align with scientific views.

7. 7 More Misconceptions(Annenberg Foundation – Minds of Our Own:Lessons from thin air & Can we believe our eyes?) What causes the organic matter in trees? Plant food Related abstract ideas about gases Application of an inappropriate analogy – growth of consumers (people) rather than producers (green plants) Will your image in a mirror change in size as you walk toward or away from the mirror? Common, but abstract event Involves several related variables

8. 8 Conceptual Change – Grade 1 Studying Pond Ecosystems A pretest-posttest study of children’s drawings and talk about their conceptions of a pond (Bowen, 1989) Demonstrates an expanded idea of discourse and text Drawing, oral conversation, gestures, symbols, written words, etc. Utilized a non-threatening interview technique Children enjoy talking about their art! Provides rich case studies of individual students

9. 9 Bob’s Pre-Instruction Drawing

10. 10 Bob’s Post-Instruction Drawing

11. 11 Bob’s results suggest that: Teaching involves a process where one misconception is replaced with another misconception, and Effective teaching means that the second misconception is somewhat more accurate than the first. This is very much like Science! What is your view of the nature of science?

12. 12 UNESCO and Common Sense Definition of Literacy Ability to read and understand the newspaper – it’s more than saying the words. Therefore, it follows that science literacy, mathematics literacy, or geographic literacy is the ability to read and understand a newspaper article about a scientific, mathematical, or geographic event or idea.

13. 13 Letter to a newspaper editor:What is your level of science literacy? Weather, Climate, and CanadiansAndrew Weaver, Canada Research Chair, University of Victoria Canadians are obsessed with weather, its variability and effect on everything we do. We are also greatly concerned with our climate, although the difference between weather and climate is often not well understood by the public. By definition, climate is the statistics of weather including, for example, its mean and variance. A torrential downpour is an individual weather event, whereas the likelihood of its occurrence in any given year is an aspect of our climate that is derived from long term averages of many individual weather events. …

14. 14 Common Features AcrossCurrent Reforms(Ford, Yore, & Anthony, 1997) Target Goals All Students Contemporary Literacy Instructional Intentions Constructivism Authentic Assessment

15. 15 Contemporary Literacy (Yore, 2000) Abilities, Thinking, and Habits of Mind to Construct Disciplinary Understanding Communications to Inform and Persuade (includes language, mathematics, ICT strategies, etc.) Understanding of the Big Ideas and Unifying Concepts Correlations amongst reading, mathematics and science literacies for the 2003 PISA results are in 0.78—0.82 range (Anderson, et al., in progress). The habits of mind and abilities to construct understanding The big ideas/unifying concepts of the discipline The communications to inform and persuade others about the big ideas/unifying concepts and to take informed action Language is both the “means” and “end” in contemporary literacy. The habits of mind and abilities to construct understanding The big ideas/unifying concepts of the discipline The communications to inform and persuade others about the big ideas/unifying concepts and to take informed action Language is both the “means” and “end” in contemporary literacy.

16. 16 Science Literacy: Pan-Canadian Framework for Science(Council of Ministers of Education, Canada [CMEC], 1997) Fuller and informed participation in the public debate about science, technology, society, and environment issues (general literacy), while … Maintaining future opportunities for science and technology related careers (elite literacy).

17. 17 Interacting Senses of Science Literacy (Norris & Phillips, 2003; Yore & Treagust, 2006) Fundamental Sense Derived Sense Understanding of the Big Ideas and Unifying Concepts Nature of Science People’s attempt to search, describe, and explain patterns of events in nature Scientific Inquiry Technological Design

18. 18 Big Ideas or Unifying Concepts (CMEC, 1997) Nature of Science and Technology Science as Inquiry – Technology as Design Relationship between Science and Technology Social and Environmental Context Content for Biological, Earth and Space, and Physical Sciences Constancy and Change Energy Similarity and Diversity System and Interactions

19. 19 Interacting Senses of Science Literacy Fundamental Sense Cognitive and Metacognitive Abilities Critical Thinking Habits of Mind Scientific Language Arts (includes mathematical language) Information and Communication Technologies Derived Sense

20. 20 Cognitive Abilities: Constructing Understanding Building knowledge claims and making sense of the world Critical analysis of claims, procedures, measurement errors, data, etc. Justifying data as evidence for or against a claim based on prior knowledge Analytical reasoning, problem solving, and troubleshooting Science processes: Observing, measuring, etc. Planning and evaluating inquiries and designs

21. 21 Metacognition: Epistemological Perspective of Your Own Cognition(Yore & Treagust, 2006) Two Clusters Metacognitive Awareness: Knowledge about cognition and cognitive tasks Declarative knowledge – What Procedural knowledge – How Conditional knowledge – Why & When Executive Control: Self-management of the cognitive task in real time and context Planning – Setting purpose, accessing resources, selecting plan or heuristic Monitoring – Tracking actions, evaluating progress Regulating – Adjusting effort, changing plan

22. 22 Experts know what they do not know as well as what they do know. Novice readers of science have limited strategies to ‘fix up’ comprehension failures. Re-reading Reading slower Few readers of science realize you can go outside of the text to make sense of the ideas.

23. 23 Critical Thinking: Decidingwhat to believe or to do about a challenge (Ford, 1998) Worthwhile challenge, issue, or problem deserving consideration Deliberations of evidence, criteria, opinions Judgment about what to do or believe Justification of the claim or judgment Thinking about your thinking as you are thinking to improve the quality of your thinking

25. 25 Critical Thinking:Grade 2 – Magnetic Materials Things that stick to a magnet nails washers paper clips Canadian 5-cent coin steel wool twist ties Things that do not stick to a magnet plastic tabs cardboard paper piece of foil crayon piece of wood brass fastener/split pin penny US 5-cent coin

26. 26 Critical thinking is not mechanistic – Creativity is important! Plant growth on a pond doubles every day to cover the surface. On Day 30, the 1 square-kilometer pond is totally covered. On what day is the pond’s surface 50% covered?

27. 27 Habits of Mind: Emotional Dispositions, Attitudes, and Processes (AAAS, 1993; CMEC, 1997) Attitudes Willingness to seek solutions and solve problems (K-2) Willingly expresses personal worldviews (4-6) Respects others’ interpretations and reasons (3-5) Recognizes science cannot answer all questions (7-9) Seeks new interpretations when faced with discrepant evidence (10-12)

28. 28 Habits of Mind (continued) Computation and Estimation Estimates answers and familiar measures (K-2) Judges reasonableness of measurements and calculations (3-5) Decides degree of precision and reports measurements accordingly (6-8) Traces source of large disparity between estimations and measurements (9-12)

29. 29 Habits of Mind (continued) Manipulation and Observation Uses simple tools, science equipment, and audio equipment (K-2) Follows safety rules and safe procedures (3-5) Inspects, disassembles, and reassembles simple devices (6-8) Troubleshoots common mechanical and electrical systems (9-12)

30. 30 Habits of Mind (continued) Critical-Response Skills Expresses skepticism: ‘How do you know that?’ (K-2) Makes fair comparisons and considers trade-offs (3-5) Understands the roles of chance and errors in relationships (6-8) Checks graphs to see that they do not misrepresent results (9-12)

31. 31 Habits of Mind (continued) Skills Seeks additional information (K-3) Keeps records and offers reasons for findings (3-5) Classifies according to several attributes (4-6) Identifies potential sources and types of errors (7-9) Identifies researchable question from practical context (10-12)

32. 32 Scientific Language: Persuasion & Communication (CMEC, 1997) Orally presents, writes, reads, and follows directions; states purpose for the stepwise procedures; and produces a compelling argument, comparison, sound explanation, or clear description (genre: scientific form/function) Constructs, views, and interprets sketches, diagrams, models, tables, charts, maps, pictures, and graphs Uses visual and textual displays to reveal relationships Locates and evaluates information from various textual and digital sources Develops and analyzes arguments

33. Science as Argumentation, not just Inquiry: Pattern of Argumentation Evidence Qualifiers Claim Warrants Rebuttal Backings

34. Classic Argument with a Taiwan–Victoria Connection Examination of SARS SARS patients Caused by and healthy people a virus Warrant 1: SARS patients’ blood and body fluids contain the virus. Warrant 2: A unique virus (corona) was isolated by UVic and UBC scientists. Backing 1: Established knowledge about respiratory diseases Backing 2: Influenza is caused by a virus, not bacteria.

35. 35 Scientific Language Arts(AAAS, 1993; Also see Saul, 2004; Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003) Communications Describes and compares things using number, shape, size, weight, color, and motion (K-2) Buttresses claims with evidence (3-5) Notices and criticizes argument (6-9) Requires critical assumptions be made explicit (9-12)

36. 36 Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)(http://www.21stcenturyskills.org) Understands, manages, and creates effective oral, written, and multimedia communications (4) Uses a variety of information access tools to locate, gather, and organize support of ideas (8) Collects and uses qualitative and quantitative information (12)

37. 37 Interacting Senses of Science Literacy: Cognitive Symbiosis Fundamental Sense Cognitive and Metacognitive Abilities Critical Thinking Habits of Mind Scientific Language Arts (includes mathematical language) Information and Communication Technologies Derived Sense Understanding of the Big Ideas and Unifying Concepts Nature of Science People’s attempt to search, describe, and explain patterns of events in nature Scientific Inquiry Technological Design

38. 38 How do people learn science? (Bransford, et al., 1999; Donovan & Bransford, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Osborne & Wittrock, 1983; Yore & Treagust, 2006) They make sense of new experiences in the context of their prior knowledge and the discourse, practices, traditions, conventions, values, and beliefs of their sociocultural context or community. Language labels (words) for concepts do not necessarily carry meaning – only the associated experiences, understandings, and constructions. Self-directed and self-regulated learning requires significant factual and conceptual foundation and metacognition. They benefit from the support of a more knowledgeable expert, peer, or more experienced person. Direct instruction works on a need-to-know basis or just-in-time delivery – cognitive apprenticeship. Learners need to set or see the purpose for learning – not just have it done to or for them.

39. 39 Constructivism (Yore, 2001) Theory about learning – not teaching – that assumes learners construct understanding from prior knowledge, sensory experiences, and social interactions. Prior knowledge may contain misconceptions that are difficult to change. Conceptual change approaches must challenge misconceptions and allow learners to construct a more understandable and powerful replacement concept. Select an interpretation that matches the discipline and goals — Learning Cycle

40. 40 Science Learning Cycle(Yore, Anderson, & Shymansky, 2005) Engage — Access, assess, and challenge learners’ prior knowledge Explore — Allow opportunities for learners to investigate the target concepts with hands-on, visual, and language experiences Consolidate — Scaffold learners’ interpretations of the experiences and connect to the established understandings Assess — Document learners’ ideas in all parts of the cycle to facilitate and evaluate learning

41. 41 Engage Phase: Language and Literacy Opportunities Access and challenge prior knowledge K-W-L charts Brainstorming Concept Mapping Set problem/focus and plan how to investigate the idea, collect, and interpret experiences Survey text and ask questions Large-group discussions of problem, researchable question, variables, procedures, safety rules, behavior, measurements, etc. Draw flow-chart, write procedures, or organize scrambled directions as ‘pre-check’ to get materials and equipment

42. 42 Explore Phase: Language and Literacy Opportunities Investigate idea and collect data Discussions within and between small groups Interpret data Use graphic or mathematical procedures to reveal patterns amongst the variables and data Share data as classroom sets Consider outliers and alternative interpretations or claims Discuss sources of error and precision (human or equipment)

43. 43 Consolidate Phase: Language and Literacy Opportunities Share ideas, debate alternative interpretations, and build an argument Discussion results: Combine 2-3 groups or re-group students from different groups to consider common, divergent, or discrepant results and interpretations Whole-class, teacher-led discussions moving from sharing and recall, organization, synthesis and evaluation, and application-level questions Integrate new and old ideas, and connect your ideas to established ideas Return to Engage tasks and monitor changes in K-W-L charts, concept maps, etc. in large group Provide reading, representing, or writing tasks and private time to allow individuals to make sense of the new experience and to integrate the new ideas into their prior knowledge stores

44. 44 Assess Phase: Language and Literacy Opportunities Authentic assessment: Assess in the same context as teaching and learning – NOT just multiple-choice items Document the construction of understanding as well as the recall of ideas Assess throughout instruction Use assessment techniques that match the target outcomes and processes – performance, representing, writing, etc. Assess to empower learning and to inform future actions Provide quick feedback Encourage self-evaluation Use peer-evaluation and group-generated rubrics

45. 45 Language is both an end and a means to Science Literacy. Language as rhetoric Communications to inform and persuade Language is a cognitive tool or technology to construct science knowledge claims Shape as well as report Argument and debate Discuss alternatives and promote learning Reveal relationships among experiences Consolidate ideas, connect ideas to established knowledge, and integrate new learning with prior knowledge Development of generative language associated with evidences of tool making, problem-solving, and increased brain size Necessary, but not sufficient component of learning Cooperative, consensus approaches appear to promote post-modern “All opinions are of equal value” approach to science Traditions of oral culture to ensure validity Storytelling in first person Clan-specific stories Inherited role Development of generative language associated with evidences of tool making, problem-solving, and increased brain size Necessary, but not sufficient component of learning Cooperative, consensus approaches appear to promote post-modern “All opinions are of equal value” approach to science Traditions of oral culture to ensure validity Storytelling in first person Clan-specific stories Inherited role

46. 46 Symbiosis between Fundamental (classic) and Derived (traditional) Senses of Science Literacy (Yore & Treagust, 2006) Learning how to use fundamental literacy impacts using literacy to learn science (derived sense of science literacy) Learning to talk/argue and talking/arguing to learn science Learning to read science and reading to learn science Learning to write and writing to learn science Learning to represent in different ways and multiple representations to learn science

47. 47 Language Tasks that Work in Science Effective Small Group Discussions – Jigsaw Approach (Salvin, 1990) Argumentation (Simon, Erduran, & Osborne, 2006) Concept Maps (Novak, 1993) Explicit Reading and Writing Instruction (Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003) Write-to-Learn Strategies 11 Strategies (Graham & Perin, 2007) Sequential Writing Tasks: Multiple Representations (Hand, Prain, & Yore, 2001) Science Writing Heuristic (Hand, et al., 2001)

48. Collaborative Essays with Peer-Review, using the Jigsaw Cooperative Learning Approach Jig-saw approach (cooperative learning) Home groups: Safe environment, trusting rapport among members Expert groups: Collaborative problem-solving with focused attentionJig-saw approach (cooperative learning) Home groups: Safe environment, trusting rapport among members Expert groups: Collaborative problem-solving with focused attention

49. 49 How can children learn to talk, write, and think patterns of argumentation? Games – evidence, thinking, and claims or speculations & make thinking explicit (I am thinking of a number between 1-100; guess what it is by asking questions that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’). Also: Clue, Battleship, Mastermind, etc. Structure Controversies (Johnson & Johnson, 1985) Plan and conduct a debate Analyze the opposing presentation Take the opposite position; plan and conduct a second debate Evaluate the two debates; construct a resulting position on the issue

50. Concept Mapping(inspiration.com, kidspiration.com)

51. 51 Explicit Reading and Writing Instruction Embedded in Science Inquiry Units Visual Literacy: Reading cross-section diagrams, flowcharts and graphs; detecting main ideas, etc. Using the parts of informational books, comprehension strategies, and metacognitive awareness and executive control of science reading Writing expository genres: summaries, explanations, instructions, problem-solutions, descriptions, etc. Using science notebooks with data records, interpretations, and thinking traces

52. 52 Inventory of Science Reading Awareness (Yore, Craig, & McGuire, 1998) Knowledge about cognitive task – Science reading (declarative, procedural, conditional) Executive Control (planning, monitoring, regulating) Science reading as interactive and constructive Science text as someone’s tentative ideas reflective of the modern nature of science Science reading strategies that help make meaning and construct understanding

53. National Geographic: Using Simple Machines (Science Theme Sets)

54. National Geographic’s Framework for Explicit Science Literacy Instruction(8 titles, 2005; 4 new titles, 2007)

55. Visual Literacy: Labeled Photograph(Common page for large-group instruction)

56. Practice Example: Labeled Photograph

57. Genre Study – How-to Books(Common page for large-group instruction)

58. How-to Book: Practice Example for Manual

59. Write Your Own User Manual(Common pages for large-group instruction)

60. 60 Comprehension Strategy – Asking Questions Metacognitive Function Access prior knowledge Set purpose Monitor progress Check understanding Pre-reading: Reader-generated During Reading: In-text Post-reading: End of chapter

61. 61 Sequential Writing Tasks Writing tasks that require transformation of ideas, re-representation, and deeper processing Data table Graph Paragraph describing or explaining the pattern of data or event

62. 62 Science Notebooks (www.sciencenotebooks.org) Define problem and ask researchable questions Plan fair test Collect data Interpret data Make claim and establish argument Trace thinking by monitoring your ideas

63. 63 Design Considerations Define your learning targets and pedagogical intentions (Ford, et al., 1997) Science literacy? ALL Taiwanese students? Constructivist approaches? Authentic assessment? Science literacy is not unrelated to other forms of literacy and disciplines – 2003 PISA results (Anderson, et al., in progress)

64. 64 Design Considerations (continued) Critically evaluate the Cognitive Symbiosis model of fundamental and derived senses of Science Literacy (Yore & Treagust, 2006) Are the assumptions compatible with Mandarin and Taiwanese cultural values and beliefs? Does this match the science curriculum in Taiwan? If yes, great; if not, what? AIMS may need to involve public awareness.

65. 65 Design Considerations (continued) Be considerate of the Nature of Science Science education is a partnership between science and education. Be aware of divergent worldviews Remember the aboriginal groups and growing immigration. (See Guo, C-J., in Yore, et al., in press) Realize that science, technology, society, and environment (STSE) issues involve complex trade-offs and critical thinking Science literacy for citizenship is far more involved than it sounds.

66. 66 Design Considerations (continued) Critically select fundamental literacy strategies to emphasize. Selection criteria must involve related learning outcomes and evidence of effectiveness. Do not just select ‘cute’ ideas without supportive evidence. Literacy strategies and activities should be introduced, reinforced and applied. Use metaphor to anchor the strategy, model strategy, establish importance of strategy, provide guided practice, extend application with supervision, transfer ownership, and apply strategy in other situations (Duke & Pearson, 2002).

67. 67 References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Anderson, J.O., Linn, H-S., Treagust, D.F., Ross, S.P., & Yore, L.D. (in progress). Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Results: Implications for science and mathematics educators and researchers. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education. Annenberg Foundation. (1987). Private universe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Annenberg Foundation. (1997). Minds of our own. Cambridge, MA: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Bowen, G.P. (1989). Pond ecology: A study of young children’s alternate concepts. Unpublished M.Ed project, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada. Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies Press.

68. 68 References (continued) Council of Ministers of Education of Canada (CMEC). (1997). Pan-Canadian framework for science. Ottawa, ON: Author. Donovan, M.S., & Bransford, J.D. (Eds.). (2005a). How students learn: History in the classroom. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies Press. Donovan, M.S., & Bransford, J.D. (Eds.). (2005b). How students learn: Mathematics in the classroom. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies Press. Donovan, M.S., & Bransford, J.D. (Eds.). (2005c). How students learn: Science in the classroom. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies Press. Duke, N.K., & Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A.E. Farstrup & S.J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

69. 69 References (continued) Ford, C.L. (1998). Educating preservice teachers to teach for an evaluative view of knowledge and critical thinking in elementary social studies. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada. Ford, C.L., Yore, L.D., & Anthony, R.J. (1997). Reforms, visions, and standards: A cross-curricular view from an elementary school perspective. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED406168). Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Hand, B.M., Prain, V., & Yore, L.D. (2001). Sequential writing tasks’ influence on science learning. In P. Tynjälä, L. Mason, & K. Lonka (Eds.), Writing as a learning tool: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 105-129). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Johnson, R.T., & Johnson, D.W. (1985). Using structure controversy in science classrooms, In R.W. Bybee (Ed.) NSTA Yearbook–Science technology society (pp. 228-234). Washington, DC: National Science Teachers Association.

70. 70 References (continued) National Research Council (NRC). (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Norris, S.P., & Phillips, L.M. (2003). How literacy in its fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Science Education, 87, 224-240. Novak, J. D. (1993). How do we learn our lesson?: Taking students through the process. The Science Teacher, 60(3), 50-55. Osborne, R.J., & Wittrock, M.C. (1983). Learning science: A generative process. Science Education, 67, 489-508. Salvin, R.E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research and practice. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Saul, E.W. (Ed.). (2004). Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory and practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association & National Science Teachers Association. Simon, S., Erduran, S., & Osborne, J. (2006). Learning to teach argumentations: Research and development in the science classroom. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 235-259.

71. 71 References (continued) Yore, L.D. (2000). Enhancing science literacy for all students with embedded reading instruction and writing-to-learn activities. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5(1), 105-122. Yore, L.D. (2001). What is meant by constructivist science teaching and will the science education community stay the course for meaningful reform? Electronic Journal of Science Education, 5(4). Online journal: http://unr.edu/homepage/crowther/ejse. Yore, L.D. (2004). Why do future scientists need to study the language arts? In E.W. Saul (Ed.), Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory and practice (pp. 71-94). Newark, DE: International Reading Association & National Science Teachers Association. Yore, L.D., Bisanz, G.L., & Hand, B.M. (2003). Examining the literacy component of science literacy: 25 years of language arts and science research. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 689-725. Yore, L.D., Chinn, P.W.M., & Hand, B.M. (in press). Special Issue of L1—Educational Research in Language and Literature.

72. 72 References (continued) Yore, L.D., Craig, M.T., & Maguire, T.O. (1998). Index of science reading awareness: An interactive-constructive model, test verification, and grade 4-8 results. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35, 27-51. Yore, L.D., Hand, B.M., & Florence, M.K. (2004). Scientists’ views of science, models of writing, and science writing practices. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 338-369. Yore, L.D., Shymansky, J.A., & Anderson, J.O. (2005). Sensing the impact of elementary school science reform: A study of stakeholder perceptions of implementation, constructivist strategies, and school-home collaboration. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 16, 65-88. Yore, L.D., & Treagust, D.F. (2006). Current realities and future possibilities: Language and science literacy-empowering research and informing instruction. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 291-314.