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Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great. Key Concepts. Alexander: The Sources. There are no primary sources for the life of Alexander except for inscriptions. During his lifetime (356 – 323 BC) more than 20 writers wrote about Alexander but none of these works survive.

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Alexander the Great

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  1. Alexander the Great Key Concepts

  2. Alexander: The Sources • There are no primary sources for the life of Alexander except for inscriptions. • During his lifetime (356 – 323 BC) more than 20 writers wrote about Alexander but none of these works survive. • The two key texts that are used today are secondary sources – Plutarch’sLife of Alexander and Arrian’sThe Campaigns of Alexander. • Plutarch (46 – 114 AD) was a Greek born historian and biographer. His writing is known for being very readable and charming.

  3. Alexander: The Sources • Arrian’s exact dates are not known but he is thought to have lived from around 85 – 146 AD. • Arrian was also Greek and an officer in the Roman army. He was later appointed governor of Cappadocia and was known as a man of military and literary talent. • The most striking difference in the two author’s treatment of Alexander is that Plutarch is writing a biography while Arrian is covering Alexaner’s campaigns.

  4. Alexander: The Sources • Plutarch gives us many details about Alexander’s lifestyle, attitudes to sex, food, drink, appearance. • Plutarch loves stories that illustrate aspects of Alexander’s character and like all good storytellers, he makes the stories as dramatic as possible. • Arrian spends much less time on Alexander’s character, focusing instead on the specific details of battle. • Both writers can be shown to be admirers of Alexander and while they do not ignore his faults, they do excuse him and explain away his worst excesses.

  5. Alexander: The Sources • Examples of these excuses can be seen in many instances – Alexander’s drinking; his treatment of Philotas, Parmenio, Cleitus, Callisthenes; the sacks of Thebes, Tyre, Gaza. • Arrian is far clearer and detailed about the military matters, being a military man himself. • Neither writer tells us very much about the Persians, their customs, religions etc.

  6. Alexander: The Sources • Both writers are moralisers, as was the custom with ancient historians. They see history as a series of good and bad deeds and judge Alexander on this basis. • Plutarch in particular wants to create an inspiring portrait and so he frequently highlights Alexander’s moderation and self control, even when many of the stories he tells about Alexander show a lack of self control.

  7. 2001 Exam Question Compare Arrian’s treatment of Alexander in his Campaigns of Alexander, with that of Plutarch’s treatment of Alexander in his Life of Alexander.

  8. Alexander’s Relationship with Women • For a man of his time, Alexander had a very respectful attitude towards women. • Although he married several times, Olympias was the main woman in Alexander’s life. • Their relationship when Alexander was young and how he sided with her in the row with Philip are both important points to be noted when looking at Alexander’s treatment of women. • References to her later in his life should also be included, all his life he sent letters back to his mother and even reserved secrets for her alone.

  9. Alexander’s Relationship with Women • In this way we can see the special place his mother had in Alexander’s heart and the close bond they shared. • However, although he often praises her, he is also said to have complained in a letter to her that she was charging too much for the nine months in her womb – they had a fiery relationship! • Both Plutarch and Arrian describe how, after defeating Darius at Issus, he captured his wife and daughters and made sure they came to no harm.

  10. Alexander’s Relationship with Women • Rather he treated them as royal guests, under his protection and sympathised with them, reassuring them that Darius was not dead as was being reported. • Plutarch reports that when Darius’ wife died during childbirth Alexander gave her an elaborate funeral. • Even though they were the family of his enemy, he treated them with great courtesy and respect. • Plutarch points out that in Persia, Alexander revived the old custom of giving married women a gold coin whenever the king visited their province.

  11. Alexander’s Relationship with Women • Plutarch also describes Alexander’s treatment of Timocleia at Thebes and her children. She had been arrested for pushing a man who had raped her down a well. • Alexander felt that she was noble and brave to take on her attacker and so freed her. • There are many other interactions Alexander had with women that show his respect and admiration for females, including the close relationship he developed with Darius’ mother; Roxane, the mother of his child; and Thais, whose advice, Plutarch says, he followed in the burning of Persepolis.

  12. Exam Question 2011 • What do we learn about Alexander through his dealings with the women in his life? Refer to the prescribed texts in your answer. Be careful to avoid giving a simple narrative of Alexander’s dealings with women, instead focus on the aspects of his character shown through these dealings.

  13. Alexander’s Drinking • Plutarch claims that Alexander was more moderate in his drinking than was generally supposed. However, there is a clear conflict between this comment and the behaviour Alexander exhibits on many occasions. • Plutarch himself says that Alexander, after a night of socialising, would stay in bed most of the following day. • He also notes that when he was drinking Alexander would become offensively arrogant and descend to the level of a common soldier, something unbecoming of a king.

  14. Alexander’s Drinking • There are many instances when Alexander made foolish and ruthless decisions while he was drinking. • These include: the murder of Cleitus; the burning of Persepolis; his behaviour after coming through the Gedrosian desert; and the continuous drinking during the days before his illness and death. • On the night the pageboys plotted to kill Alexander, he avoided being killed because he stayed out drinking all night.

  15. Alexander’s Drinking • Macedonians in general were known for their drinking and it is clear that there as heavy drinking in the Macedonian camp. It was not a problem that lay simply with Alexander. (This is evident in Hephaestion’s cause of death also) • Although drinking certainly seems to be a constant in Alexander’s life, it is very clear that it did not stop his ability to lead the campaign in Persia or hinder those qualities that made him such an effective military leader – bravery, innovation, strategy, determination etc.

  16. Exam Question 2008 and 2004 • “Alexander was also more moderate in his drinking that was generally supposed.” (Plutarch) Do you agree with the above comment? Give reasons for your answer, supporting them with reference to the prescribed texts. (ii) “In spite of his vehement and impuslive nature, he showed little interest in the pleasures of the senses and indulged in them only with great moderation. (Plutarch) Discuss this quotation with reference to what you have learned about the behaviour of Alexander from your reading of the prescribed texts on the course.

  17. The Influence of Homer on Alexander • “Once, men said, when a messenger arrived with news and could barely conceal his delight, Alexander stopped him with a smiled and said: ”What can you possibly tell me that deserves such excitement” he asked, “except perhaps that Homer has come back to life?” Robert Lane Fox Alexander the Great P.67 • Plutarch tells us that for Alexander, the Iliad was a handbook of the art of war and he took it with him on his campaigns. Indeed the text was annotated by his teacher, Aristotle. This became known as the “casket copy”. He kept this copy under his pillow along with a dagger P. 260

  18. The Influence of Homer on Alexander • When Alexander arrived in Persia, at a place called Elaeus, he made offerings and sacrificed on the tomb of Protesilaus. This was the first man in Agamemnon’s army to set foot on Asia during the Trojan War. Alexander hoped to have better luck than Protesilaus, because this Greek also died when he landed on Persian soil. • When Alexander arrived in Persia he went to Troy and honoured the graves of Achilles and Patroclus. He poured libations on the graves and held sacred Athletic competitions on the site. • Alexander went into the temple of Athena in Troy and exchanged the weapons hanging on the walls, from the Trojan war, with his own.

  19. The Influence of Homer on Alexander • A shield, taken from the temple of Athena at Troy, was reputably used to save his life. In India when Alexander was injured in a campaign against the Mallians, the shield of Athena was used to protect him. • At Troy Alexander prayed to Priam, (King of Troy). Alexander was related to Neoptolemus, (Achilles son). He did not want Priam to punish Alexander for his family connections to the man who destroyed Troy centuries earlier.

  20. The Influence of Homer on Alexander • After the siege of Gaza, some sources say that Alexander placed thongs through the ankles of Batis, (the defeated leader of Gaza), fixed a rope around these thongs and tied this to his chariot. Then the body of Batis was dragged around the city of Gaza. This is a clear imitation of a scene from Homer’s Iliad, where Achilles dragged the body of Hector, whom he had just killed, around the walls of Troy. • Before Alexander built the city of Alexandria in Egypt, he had a dream where an old man recited lines from Homer’s Odyssey. In his dream Alexander was directed to Pharos on the Nile. Near this site Alexander founded his new city.

  21. Plots on Alexander’s Life • After the siege if Halicarnassus, Parmenio reported to Alexander that a Persian envoy, Sisines, was sent by Darius to persuade a man called Alexander son of Aeropus to kill Alexander king of Macedonia. The assassin, (also called Alexander) was offered 1,000 talents as well as the Kingship of Macedonia. Alexander son of Aeropus was given command over the Thessalian cavalry. Parmenio apprehended him and the plot fell through. Alexander’s friends rebuked the king for giving so much responsibilities to a man who would later on consider treason against him.(Arrian) • On another occasion Parmenio sent a letter to Alexander, saying that his doctor, Philip, was going to poison him. As Alexander was reading this letter, his doctor was giving him a beaker of medicine that he had just mixed. Alexander handed the letter over to his doctor and as the astonished physician was reading the letter, Alexander drank the potion he was given. Alexander did eventually recover and placed a great deal of trust in this doctor after that.

  22. Plots on Alexander’s Life • The plot to kill Alexander involving Philotas. A man called Dimnos wanted to kill Alexander. He asked Nichomachus to join in. This Nichomachus told his brother Cebalinus. Philotas was informed and was asked to bring the affair to Alexander’s attention. When he did not Cebalinus and Nichomachus went to Alexander themselves. Philotas was tortured and executed. However it in important to note that Philotas did not actually arrange the assassination himself. His merely failed to bring news of it to Alexander.

  23. Plots on Alexander’s Life • The plot involving the page boys. Hermolaus a young page boy was punished by Alexander. He gathered around him a group of younger conspirators. Their intention was to murder Alexander as he slept. Part of the duties of these boys was to guard Alexander's tent as he slept. When Alexander heard about the plot, he had the boys tortured and executed. Callisthenes was also implicated and imprisoned/killed. Although he may have been completely innocent. • When Alexander died in Babylon, some suspected he was poisoned. There was the suspicion that Antipater sent the poison with his son Iolas or Cassandra. This poison was made by Aristotle. Other say it was Medius who administered the poison, (it was at his party that Alexander began to feel feverish). Arrian and Plutarch tend to dismiss these theories.

  24. Mutiny and Revolt • Mutiny on the Hyphasis- After the battle on the Hydaspis, Alexander’s men refused to go further into India. They wanted to return home. Alexander tried to persuade them to remain by saying that they had only a little more territory to conquer. However general Coenus, speaking for the common soldier, told Alexander that the men wanted to go home. The had lost many comrades and were themselves battle weary. They wanted to see their wives and homelands again. Alexander should return to Macedonia and gather younger troops for further conquests. Alexander eventually gave in. He had no choice because he needed his Macedonian troops, officers and Companions. He could not go on without their support. Arrian says that this revolt was “Alexander’s only defeat”.

  25. Mutiny and Revolt • Mutiny at Opis – This mutiny centred around Alexander’s intention to send back to Greece, thousands of veteran soldiers. The Macedonians were furious at this insult. They felt that Alexander was degrading his own countrymen, in favour of the “barbarians”. They were also angry with Alexander for embracing Persian customs and promoting Persian officers into the higher ranks of his army. Eventually the revolt was resolved. 13 ringleaders were executed and the Macedonians were informed that Alexander still considered them as his “kinsmen”. However this revolt failed. Alexander had now packed his regiments with loyal Persians. He also promoted them as officers. He did not have to rely so much on his Macedonian troops or officers. Also he was no longer far away in India in uncertain/hostile territory. He was safer by now than he had been in the previous revolt. This is why Alexander could react very differently this time.

  26. Exam Question 2006 • What was the cause of the Mutiny (15) • According to Alexander’s speech why should the Macedonians be grateful to himself and Philip (25) • In what way was this revolt different than the revolt at Hyphasis (10)

  27. Exam Question 2007 • What were the main arguments made by Coenus for turning back (25) • What is your opinion of Alexander’s reaction to his men’s refusal to go on further into India (15) • Identify two differences between this mutiny and the mutiny at Opis (10)

  28. The Role of Religion and the Supernatural • Alexander clearly respected the gods and was faithful to his religious duties. He was surrounded by soothsayers, observed omens and visited oracles. • On the night Alexander was born, it is claimed that the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was destroyed. It was said that the goddess was too busy attending Alexander’s birth to save her temple. The Magi (priests) however thought the episode spelled doom for Asia. • Before setting off for Asia, Alexander was told by Olympius that his father was Zeus, and that he was to live up to his noble birth. He believed that he was also related to Heracles, on his father’s side. • As Alexander was crossing the Hellespont, on his way to Persia, he sacrificed a bull to Poseidon, and “propriated the Nereids”. • When he a visited Troy, Alexander honoured the hero’s of the Trojan war, (Achilles) and visited the temple of Athena. He also held sacred games to honour these heroes. He prayed to King Priam, not to be avenged for the actions of Achilles.

  29. The Role of Religion and the Supernatural • When Alexander visited Memphis in Egypt, he worshipped both the Greek and Egyptian Gods. • We know Alexander performed sacrifices on the eve of battles and sieges. This was done to curry the Gods favour. Altars were set up an bulls slaughtered etc. • When Alexander was at Tyre he asked to be admitted to the new city to honour Heracles. When he was refused, he was outraged. When he did eventually sack the city, Heracles was duly honoured. • In Babylon, Alexander ordered the great temple of Bel to be restored. The priests were also granted their freedom to attend to the temple. • Before Alexander returned to Asia from India, he built twelve altars to thank the gods for his success so far. • Before Alexander set out for Persia he went to the oracle of Delphi, a priestess claimed (inauspicially) that he was “invincible”. • When the statue or Orpheus was noticed to be moist, Alexander’s chief seer Aristander said that this was a good omen. Poets and musicians would sweat as they sang of Alexander’s greatness in the future. • Before the siege of Miletus a bird rested on one of Alexander’s ships. Alexander decided that this was an omen ,to indicate that he would win the war in Asia on land and not at sea.

  30. The Role of Religion and the Supernatural • Before the siege of Gaza a bird appeared as Alexander was sacrificing for the success of his attack. Aristander proclaimed that Alexander would be injured but would capture the city. Both prophecies came true. • When he went to Egypt Alexander visited the shrine of Zeus Ammon. Here he was told that he was the son of Ammon. This convinced Alexander that he had a special relationship with Zeus-Ammon. • In the later years of Alexander’s life there was a number of signs and omens as he returned to Babylon from India. The examination of the lobless livers by Pythagoras, is a famous one. Alexander was informed that the absence of a lobe on the liver of the birds was not good news for him. • The priests of Babylon sent word to Alexander not to enter the city. He ignored this. However on his way into the city, a bird fight taking place over head, startled him: especially when some of the birds began falling to the ground. • Finally the is the story of stranger who sat on Alexander’s throne as he was playing with his friends nearby. This was seen as yet another ominous sign for the king.

  31. Alexander’s Orientalism – a policy of fusion What was orientalism? • Alexander wore Persian clothes and robes. He wore the royal diadem and sat on the Persian royal throne and surrounded himself with Persian advisors. • He Insisted that his subjects prostrate themselves before him, (as was once done to the Persian kings). • Later on Peucestas, one of his generals, learned the Persian language and practiced Persian customs. Much to the disgust of his fellow Macedonians – but Alexander, naturally, approved of this. • When Alexander held the mass wedding at Susa – the Persian wedding rite was performed. He also married Persian royal women. • Alexander trained Persian youths, (the inheritors) in Macedonian style and had them armed in Macedonian battle gear. • Alexander promoted Persians to the highest ranks in his army –a practice that alarmed his Macedonian comrades, (Mutiny at Opis). • Plutarch says that Alexander adopted this policy so as the Persians would accept Alexander as their king and not a conqueror.

  32. Alexander’s Orientalism – a policy of fusion Opposition • The Macedonian and Greeks were very disturbed by Alexander's changes in habits and customs. They felt that Alexander was living more like a barbarian and less like a Greek • Callisthenes – Alexander’s biographer, he especially loathed the idea of prostration. • Cleitus–mocked Alexander for having Persian sycophants around him • Hermalous – the young conspirator declared, before he was executed, that he would rather died than live under Alexander's Tyranny. He also saw Alexander as a despot, a notion more associated with a Persian ruler than a Greek liberator. • The Mutiny at Opis– this revolt was particularly due to Alexander’s preference for Persians and the very high notion he had of himself as “son of Zeus Ammon”

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