Genetic Engineering

1. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology Genetic Engineering • Technology that involves manipulating the DNA of one organism in order to insert the DNA of another organism, called exogenous DNA.

2. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • Genetically engineered organisms are used • to study the expression of a particular gene. • To investigate cellular processes • to study the development of a certain disease. Genetically engineered bollworm • To select traits that might be beneficial to humans

4. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology DNA Tools • An organism's genome is the total DNA in the nucleus of each cell. • DNA tools can be used to manipulate DNA and to isolate genes from the rest of the genome.

5. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • Restriction enzymes recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences and cleave the DNA within the sequence. • Scientists use restriction enzymes as powerful tools for isolating specific genes or regions of the genome.

6. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • EcoRI specifically cuts DNA containing the sequence GAATTC. • The ends of the DNA fragments, called sticky ends, contain single-stranded DNA that is complementary.

7. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • The newly generated DNA molecule with DNA from different sources is called recombinant DNA.

8. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • To make a large quantity of recombinant plasmid DNA, bacterial cells are mixed with recombinant plasmid DNA. • Some of the bacterial cells take up the recombinant plasmid DNA through a process called transformation.

9. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • Anelectric current is used to separate DNA fragments according to the size of the fragments in a process called gel electrophoresis. • When an electric current is applied, the DNA fragments move toward the positive end of the gel. • The smaller fragments move farther faster than the larger ones. • The unique pattern created based on the size of the DNA fragment can be compared to known DNA fragments for identification.

10. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • Large numbers of identical bacteria, each containing the inserted DNA molecules, can be produced through a process called cloning.

11. Gel Electrophoresis

13. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • To understand how DNA is sequenced, scientists mix an unknown DNA fragment, DNA polymerase, and the four nucleotides—A, C, G, T in a tube.

14. Genetics and Biotechnology • Every time a modified fluorescent-tagged nucleotide is incorporated into the newly synthesized strand, the reaction stops. Section 2 DNA Technology • Each nucleotide is tagged with a different color of fluorescent dye.

15. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • The sequencing reaction is complete when the tagged DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis.

16. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology • A technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used to make millions of copies of a specific region of a DNA fragment.

17. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology

18. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology Biotechnology • Organisms, genetically engineered by inserting a gene from another organism, are called transgenic organisms.

19. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology Transgenic Animals • Scientists produce most transgenic animals in laboratories for biological research. • Mice, fruit flies, and the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans

20. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 2 DNA Technology Transgenic Plants • Genetically engineered cotton resists insect infestation of the bolls. • Sweet-potato plants are resistant to a virus that could kill most of the African harvest. • Rice plants with increased iron and vitamins could decrease malnutrition. Gene Splicing

21. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 3 The Human Genome The Human Genome Project • The goal of the Human Genome Project (HGP) was to determine the sequence of the approximately three billion nucleotides that make up human DNA and to identify all of the approximately 20,000–25,000 human genes.

22. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 3 The Human Genome Sequencing the Genome • Each of the 46 human chromosomes was cleaved. • These fragments were combined with vectors to create recombinant DNA, cloned to make many copies, and sequenced using automated sequencing machines. • Computers analyzed the overlapping regions to generate one continuous sequence.

23. Decoding the sequence of the human genome can be compared to Genetics and Biotechnology reading a book that was printed in code. Section 3 The Human Genome

24. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 3 The Human Genome • Less than two percent of all of the nucleotides in the human genome code for all the proteins in the body. • The genome is filled with long stretches of repeated sequences that have no direct function. • These regions are called noncoding sequences.

25. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 3 The Human Genome DNA Fingerprinting • Protein-coding regions of DNA are almost identical among individuals. • The long stretches of noncoding regions of DNA are unique to each individual. • DNA fingerprinting involves separating these DNA fragments to observe the distinct banding patterns that are unique to every individual.

26. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 3 The Human Genome Bioinformatics • Creating and maintaining databases of biological information • Finding genes in DNA sequences of various organisms and developing methods to predict the structure and function of newly discovered proteins

27. A technique aimed at correcting mutated genes that cause human diseases is called gene therapy. Genetics and Biotechnology Section 3 The Human Genome • Scientists insert a normal gene into a chromosome to replace a dysfunctional gene. • Genomics is the study of an organism’s genome.