Welcome to PSY 105

1. Welcome to PSY 105 Be sure to check my webpage for additional information regarding exams, and experimental credit requirements.

2. Do churches cause crime? • Any explanation to support (explain) the above hypothesis? • Data to support it? • Record changes within one city over time: As the number of churches increase, so too does crime. • Collect data from different cities: Cities with more churches also have more crime. • This demonstrates that churches and crime are related, but why not causally? • Must manipulate variables of interest to conclude cause. • Confound? • Population!

3. Does smoking cause cancer in humans? • Survey data linking smoking to cancer • Longitudinal data showing that early smoking associated with later cancer • Experiments with rats

4. Terminology for Research • Case studies/ Introspection (detailed info) • Naturalistic Observation (unobtrusive) • Survey research (large samples, easy) • Longitudinal research (changes, not lab based) • Experimental research (causality) • DV – dependent variables • IV – independent variables • Each type of research correspond to a level of understanding • description, explanation, prediction, and control

5. Error in all types of measurement • Measure twice, cut once (still not perfect, but flaws may not be detectable) • e.g., Self-esteem, depression, IQ, extraversion, etc. • Standard error of measure (influenced by…?) • Error limits reliability (e.g., test retest) • Reliability limits validity (e.g., criterion)

6. Scales of Measurement • Nominal - categories • Ordinal – ordered categories • Interval – ordered categories with equal intervals • Ratio – ordered categories, equal intervals and a true zero • Examples for each?

7. GPA – a closer look. • Rounded to the second decimal (e.g., 3.24). • How is this figure computed? • What type of information do you have? • Ordinal to Ratio?

8. Error in all types of measurement -2 • Use appropriate measures of central tendency • mode, median, mean

9. Tools for statistical inference • Reliability (e.g., test retest and inter-rater) • Validity (e.g., construct, predictive) • Use samples to estimate population values • Use sample means and SD to estimate population mean and variance

10. Tools for statistical inference • Larger, representative samples provide better estimates of population values • What is the best way to get a representative sample? • T-tests/ANOVA – differences between groups • Correlations range from -1.0 to +1.0. (see graphs)

11. Example of a positive correlation IQ GPA

12. Example of an inverse correlation Depression Self-esteem

13. Understanding statistics through sports • Home field advantage in the playoffs: Fact or fiction? • What is an important confound? • The “hot hand phenomenon” in top athletes • Research by Gilovich (1986) on college and professional basketball players (note: minimal variability) • “The batter is due”: The true meaning of averages. • Probability theory

14. Understanding statistics through sports • The Sports Illustrated Cover Jinx: Regression to the mean • Bating average for daylight games played on grass is .354, the rest of the time it’s .260! • Random variability with smaller samples vs. coherent theory (e.g., see the ball better in the day; grass is easier on the knees, etc. Why doesn’t everyone do better in the day & on grass?)

15. The stat corner! • Playing more holes allows one to minimize the effects of chance (i.e., it is more likely that actual ability rather than other factors such as luck will determine the outcome) • Note: In sporting events with best of seven formats, there are fewer upsets than 1 game playoffs. • The same is true for experiments. The more subjects you have, the more times you replicate findings, the less likely the findings are due to chance.

16. Gender Differences: 3 perspectives • 1. Social psychological factors • Media pressure • Rating violent vs. non-violent films later affected likelihood of retaliation to a perceived offense (Zillman & Weaver, 1999) • Listening to songs with violent themes increases aggression (Johnson et al., 2000) • film “Killing us softly 3” • Research by Geis and colleagues (1986) on role reversed commercials • School teachers (Sadker & Sadker, 1986) • 2. Evolution (sociobiological theory; Buss) • within species (e.g., evolution of adaptive beh. in deer) • 3. Anatomical factors (e.g., Freud)

17. Who’s more jealous? • Consider how males and females differ in their attitudes & behaviors as they are expressed in relationships • “Would you experience more distress over sexual infidelity or emotional infidelity?” (Buss et al., 1999) • Imagine partner falling in love with someone else vs. Imagine partner trying different sexual positions with someone else. • 83% of females more jealous of emotional infidelity vs. 40% of males • males show greater physiological arousal to imagined sex of partner with someone else • Why are males more jealous about sexual infidelity and females more jealous of emotional infidelity?

18. Sociobiological theory • Evolutionary pressures differ by gender • Females have high investment in children and a relatively short reproductive period so they should be more selective (what traits should they seek?) • Want to obtain access to resources for off-spring so important to ensure paternal certainty (monogamy) • Males have relatively short temporal investment and lengthy reproductive period so no need to be selective (what traits should they seek?) • The “Coolidge Effect” – refers to the increased sexual potency of males when novel females are introduced

19. Buss’ Research • Over 10,000 individuals from 33 countries • Among the top traits for both men and women in short term relationships was promiscuity (sexual availability) • For long term relationships the top trait for both groups is physical attractiveness • What might “physical attractiveness” represent in addition to beauty? • Health = reproductive potential • For females, earning potential was consistently rated high (noteworthy, given the population sampled) • Other theories for why males and females differ…

20. Oedipus & electra complexes • Males desire mommy and compete with daddy • Castration anxiety leads to identification with father to get someone like mommy • Females also desire mommy until they realize that she does not have a penis • Experience penis envy and seek to obtain a penis • How? • Never fully satisfied so the personality is never fully developed • All conflict is completely submerged in the unconscious, so there is no direct knowledge of these thought processes. • Does the unconscious exist? Can it affect us? • Subliminal info (detected less than 50% of the time)

21. Subliminal psychodynamic activation (SPA) • A series of studies have been conducted that attempt to unconsciously stimulate classic oedipal desires and observe its effects • “Mommy and I are one” • This phrase is flashed for a very brief period using a tachistoscope. • Receiving unconscious statements that satisfy the classic oedipal wish has decreased psychotic behavior in schizophrenic patients, increased eating in anorectic patients, and increased well-being in college students (e.g., see Silverman and colleagues, 1978). • This effect does not occur if the phrase is presented above the subliminal threshold.

22. Why do we (for the most part) follow rules?

23. Social Influence • What factors might affect whether and to what extent the actions of others affect you? • Asch’s (1955) line conformity experiment

24. Is the target line closest in length to A, B, or C? A B C Target line

25. Social Pressure: Asch, 1955 • Matching one’s behavior to that of others is referred to as conformity (about 75% conformed at least 1/3rd of the time to incorrect answers • Factors effecting conformity include; • group size (3-4), • group cohesiveness, • gender (females more so, though this was related to the topic), • social status of other group members, • culture (individualistic vs. collectivistic) • appearance of unanimity. • Will such influence affect more important behaviors? • e.g., Do you wash your hands after going to the bathroom? Females: 16% when alone, 90% with others

26. More social pressure • Would you kill someone just because you are told to do so? • College students at Yale University were tested to see the extent to which they would comply with the orders of others (Milgram, 1974) • Two participants at the time (randomly assigned to “teacher” & “learner”) • Electric shocks used to facilitate learning (15v increments for incorrect or no response) Labels used in the study: 15v 30v 45v 60v 75v 90v 105v up to 450v 15v – slight shock 300v – Danger: Severe shock 450v - XXX

27. Factors affecting obedience • Summary of findings • Most (2/3) individuals obeyed the experimenter and administered the highest level of shock • No differences when using female subjects Several factors could affect obedience including; • distance from experimenter, • victim is depersonalized (distance or info), • experimenter is an authority figure or is supported by an institution, • subject is not actually the one delivering the shock (93% compliance), • the lack of role models for defiance

28. Conclusions on Milgram • Why did so many (65%) obey? • What would happen in a more real life setting? • 90% of nurses followed orders delivered by phone from an unknown doctor to administer a medication in a dosage that was more than double the maximum dose. • Why was this unethical?

29. Sheep or Wolves? • We follow the actions of others? • We do what we’re told? • We take advantage of others? • We don’t care about others? • Kitty Genovese in Queens, NY (1964) • Bystander apathy/diffusion of responsibility • Latane & Darley, 1969

30. Social effects • Social facilitation (Triplett, 1898) • Study of cyclists who work harder with others • Social inhibition (choking) • Dominant response theory (Zajonc) • The presence of others produces arousal and this leads to the most well learned response • Typically that means facilitation for easy tasks and inhibition for difficult tasks • -cockroaches too!

31. More social effects • Social loafing (Latene et al., 1979) • Consequences of not recording individual contributions? • Group Polarization (Janis, 1972) • When exposed only to others with similar beliefs • Group think as a model for poor decision making

32. Justification of Behavior • We always strive to achieve cognitive consistency (avoid cognitive dissonance) • Festinger’s research illustrates this with regard to payment for services • Would you feel like you enjoyed a task more if you were paid $1/hour or $20/hour? Why? • Lerner’s Just World Phenomenon also illustrates how the end result can be used to label (justify) events.

33. What factors determine if you like someone?

34. Factors that predict liking • 1) Proximity – actual distance (virtual distance may be more relevant today) • Exposure effect – familiarity results in liking • Mita (1977) research on freshman photos • 2) Physical attractiveness – Study by Hatfield (1966) shows that we prefer attractive people as friends, also seen as more attractive, smarter, happier, etc (Dion, 1986) - culturally determined (focus varies; neck, lips, ears)

35. More factors for liking • 3) Similarity – values, appearance, SES, race, etc. • 4) Reciprocity – liking others is a powerful reward

36. Physical attractiveness • Height – taller is perceived as more attractive & higher status • Broad shoulders – also perceived as more attractive and as an indicator of dominance (another pos. feature) • For adults: Females prefer males who are 4-5 years older (the reverse is true for males) • Clothing can also indicate status • 3 clothing options: Blazer, plain shirt, or Burger King uniform • 2 levels of attractiveness: attractive or homely • Women prefer relationship with high status clothing even if homely • Facial symmetry – associated with attractiveness ratings and even scent preference for ovulating women • Body Symmetry for women – a height to width ratio of .7

37. What predicts loving? • The four “liking” factors and arousal • This might be referred to as “chemistry” • Many different forms of arousal that we experience (exercise, fear, sexual, etc.) and all are initially the same physiologically • The way they are experienced differs depending on how they are labeled • Misattribution of arousal research • Dutton & Aron, 1974: males crossing a bridge

38. Psychology and related fields • Ph.D. in clinical or experimental (with or without topical emphasis) • Psy.D. – counseling psychology • Ed.D. – Educational psychology • MA – licensed psychological associate • MSW – social work degree • MD – with specialization in psychiatry

39. Overview for Exam 1 • What phenomenon could explain the fact that someone could collapse on a busy street and not get any help from those passing by? • Social loafing? • Diffusion of responsibility? • Collectively referred to as the “bystander effect” (see also study of smoke filled room) • Questions from on-line exam?