Western Civilization I HIS-101

1. Western Civilization IHIS-101 UNIT 2 - GODS AND EMPIRES IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST (1700-500 BCE)

2. Rising Powers of the Near East • The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a time of transition and constant warfare • This was due to numerous Indo-European tribes moving into the Near East as well as Semitic tribes • By the beginning of the late Bronze Age (1500-1200 BCE), there were a number of major powers in the Near East: • The Hittites in Anatolia (Asia Minor) • The Kassites in Babylon • The Mitanni in Syria • The Egyptians • The Minoans in Crete • The Mycenaeans in Greece

4. Rise of Anatolia • Anatolia was a region that was full of natural resources • Previous civilizations had not take advantage of this • The area had been ruled by Cappadocians but were not organized like other civilizations • The Assyrians moved into Anatolia from Mesopotamia c.1900 BCE • Their purpose was to create a vast trade network into region and take advantage of the resources available • They did not seek military gains but did have a profound impact: • The became advisors to the Cappadocian kings • They also married into Cappadocian families • They brought Mesopotamian civilization and urbanization with them

5. Rise of Anatolia • The Hittites moved into central Anatolia c. 2000 BCE • Their city-states remained independent until 1700 BCE • Hittite Old Kingdom (c. 1700-c.1500 BCE) • It was a very militaristic styled culture • The kingdom expanded under Hattusilis I (c.1650–c.1620 BCE) • He expanded the frontiers throughout the Anatolian Plateau • He controlled trade routes as a way to expand the kingdom’s economic capabilities • His reign was known as the “Kingdom of a Thousand Gods” as he accepted the religion and customs of those conquered • Mursilis I (c. 1620–c. 1590 BCE) continued on the success • He expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even into Mesopotamia • He sacked the city of Babylon c.1595 BCE, leaving it in ruins

6. Hittites were one of the first civilizations to use war chariots on a widespread basis

7. Kassites • In southern Mesopotamia, the Kassites moved in c. 2000 BCE • Historians believe they had migrated from the Zagros Mountains in modern Iran • They set up the Middle Babylonian Kingdom (c.1531-c.1155 BCE) • This was after the city of Babylon had been sacked by Hittites • We do not know much about them because of a lack of Kassite records from the time period • They did trade extensively with the Assyrians, Hittites, and Egyptians • They brought peace and prosperity into the region

8. Mitanni • The Mitanni set up their kingdom in northern Mesopotamia (c. 1500-1360 BCE) • They were master horse trainers and brought in new innovations in warfare • This included light, horse-drawn chariots that would carry archers into battle • They also developed excellent cavalry tactics • Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed attack by the Hittites • The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to serve as a buffer between them and the Assyrians

9. Coffin cover of King Intef VIII Sekhemreherhermaat • 17th Dynasty • (??? – 1566 BCE)

10. Second Intermediate Period • The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1783-1550 BCE) in Egypt was due the weak control of 13th and 14th Dynasties rulers • During this time period, the military became disorganized • Around 1750 BCE, the Hyksos invaded the delta region • Their origins are unknown though the are believed to be of western Asiatic descent • The term “Hyksos” was derived from hekakhasewet, meaning "foreign rulers" • This led to more instability in the region • The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence • The Nubians to the south also broke free from Egyptian control

11. Second Intermediate Period • Upper Egypt remained under Egyptian control • The Hyksos took full control of Lower Egypt in 1663 • They adopted Egyptian traditions to legitimatize their rule • They also made some significant cultural improvements • They introduced bronze as a new and improved metal for making weapons and tools • Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and a compound bow • They also introduced horse-drawn war chariots • In the end, the new technologies were used to overthrow the Hyksos • They were conquered by Ahmose I, who started the 18th Dynasty, in c.1550

12. Ahmose I Battling the Hyksos

13. New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) • New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th through 20th Dynasties • During this period, there were significant changes to the Egyptian style of government • There was a new militaristic attitude • It was characterized by constant invasions and war campaigns (“defense through offense”) • Even the pharaohs themselves were trained as military leaders and spent time on campaigns • This led to the rise of a new group • A war nobility consisting of war commanders who grew accustomed to working independently

14. New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) • There was a loss of power for the pharaoh to three strong institutions: • War Nobility - A new group that forged its respect on the battlefield • Royal Bureaucracy – With the pharaoh constantly on campaigns, they experienced a tremendous growth in power • Priesthood – Receiving the gifts from conquered lands, the priests accumulated vast estates and slaves • Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1292 BCE) • This is a period of Egyptian history that is categorized by military expansion, imperialism and prosperity • This period contained some of the greatest and most powerful pharaohs in history

15. New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) • The 18th dynasty began with Ahmose I (1550-1525 BCE) • He not only conquered the Hyksos and reunified Egypt, and brought Nubia back under Egyptian control • Thutmose I – (c.1504-1492 BCE) • During his reign, the Nubians rebelled and Thutmose led a campaign to defeat them • During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed and supposedly hung from the prow of Thutmose’s ship • He led campaigns even farther south, conquering land as far as the Fourth Cataract • He also drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and Palestine • He held more territory than any other pharaoh before him

16. New Kingdom Egypt

17. Thutmose III and Hatshepsut

18. Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) • Hatshepsut – (1479-1458 BCE) • She had been Thutmose II’s Great Royal Wife and became the regent for Thutmose III • While technically co-ruling with Thutmose III, in 1473 BCE she crowned herself pharaoh • She become the first female king • Only two other women ruled in their own names before her, but not as king • She even adopted a Horus name, dressed in pharaonic regalia (including a false beard), and was addressed as “His Majesty” • She had a very prosperous reign • Her reign witnessed extensive building projects • Including her temple at Deir el Bahri

19. Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) • She died in 1458 BCE but the cause of her death was unknown • There had been no record of it and historians had proposed both natural causes and murder • In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by DNA and the death was ruled to be caused by an abscessed tooth • After Hatshepsut’s death, many of her monuments were either defaced or destroyed • Damnatiomemoriae – “Erasing from history” • Historians are mixed as to who and why someone did this • Many suspect it was either Thutmose III or his son Amenhotep II • They speculate that Thutmose did it either as revenge or was used as a way for either of them to legitimize their reigns

20. Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE)

21. Thutmose III – (1479-1425 BCE) • Thutmose III is considered one of the greatest pharaohs in Egyptian history • Over the course of his life, he conducted 17 military campaigns • He captured over 350 cities • He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni • He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth Cataract in Nubia • His reign was marked by numerous building projects as well • He constructed of over fifty temples

22. Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE)

23. Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BCE) • Amenhotep II (1427-c.1400 BCE) • In his military campaigns, his priority was to maintain his father’s conquests • He put down revolts in Syria • He negotiated peace agreements with the kings of the Hittites, Mitanni, and Babylon where they paid tribute to him • He did not push for the same sort of expansion Egypt had during his father’s reign • He did complete numerous building projects that his father started and had some of his own

24. Amenhotep III (c.1386-c.1350 BCE) • Amenhotep III (c. 1386-c.1350 BCE) • By the time he reached the throne, Egypt was at peace and very prosperous • He did not have to worry about military campaigns like his predecessors • He devoted himself to diplomatic ties with Syria, the Mitanni, the Hittites, Assyria, and Cyprus • Included political marriages • He also had an extensive building program which included: • Portions of the temple at Luxor • The Colossi of Memnon which were two gigantic statues of Amenhotep designed to guard his temple

25. Colossi of Memnon

26. Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)

27. Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) • Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) • His original name was Amenhotep IV (“Amun is Pleased”) • He is best known for a massive religious upheaval in Egypt and temporarily turning the country towards monotheism • Prior to his reign, the dominating deity in Egypt was Amun-Ra • The was a combination of the local Thebian deity Amun and the sun god Ra • Akhenaten, himself, followed Aten as his main deity • Aten, the sun disc itself, could not be depicted as human so he was always drawn as light or sun rays • He changed his name to Akhenaten (“the effective spirit of Aten”)

28. Worship of the god Aten

29. Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) • As part of his religious changes: • He built a new capital Akhetaten (“the horizon of the Aten”) • He recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism) • He closed down the temples of other gods • Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten? • He may have been a revolutionary intellectual • He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping Amun-Ra) by using insight and imagination to create a new cult of Aten • He may have been reactionary, upset by the blending of two gods, Amun and Ra, into one god • He may have just been a typical politician • He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of Amun’s priests by bringing in a new religious regime

30. Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) • However, his attempt at religious change was a failure • Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their beliefs • The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance as well • Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs nor foreign policy • Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled lands • He fell out of favor with a number of important leaders • All of this led to a loss of support by the military nobility • Ironically, a serious pandemic started in Egypt • It could have been the plague, polio, or influenza • Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was “out of whack” and blamed the pharaoh for this

31. Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE)

32. Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE) • Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he took the throne • He was originally named Tutankhaten (“living image of Aten”) • It was later changed it to Tutankhamun (“living image of Amun”) • His main focus was to restore Amun as the primary deity and bring back the old gods • Akhentaten’s monuments were destroyed • The capital was moved back to Thebes • During his reign, there was a continued decline in Egyptian power • This was especially true in terms of foreign relationships

33. Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE) • His death at the age of 19 is still being studied • After his tomb was first discovered in 1922, many thought he died from a blow to the head • There there were cranial pieces in his brain cavity • After a 2005 CT scan, the skull injury was believed to have been a result of the mummification process • A broken leg, however, was revealed so they speculated that he died of gangrene • In 2010, after DNA testing done, it is now believed to be a combination of the leg injury and severe malaria • As he did not have an heir, his death marked the end of the 18th Dynasty

35. International System • From 1500 to 1200 BCE, a complex system of trade and diplomacy developed • During this time, there was a move from military expansionism and war to a more stable, peaceful co-existence • Leaders realized that wars were too costly • It was more favorable for them to be at peace and have trade channels open • As part of his diplomacy, leaders would correspond with one another • A standard set of written etiquette was used • They would also exchange gifts and arrange marriages to secure alliances

36. International System • Along with diplomacy, international trade flourished during this period • Countries were able to sell their goods in far markets and any type of import was in high demand • The trade routes also allowed for the transport of ideas as well which allowed for a greater understanding between the cultures • With the expansion of trade routes, this led to greater dependence on goods from other countries • They become mutually dependant on one another economically • This could be disastrous if one country’s economy collapsed • As the international market spread, it reached into less stable countries with unreliable partners and possibly more dangerous enemies

37. Minoan Crete

38. Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete • Earliest civilization in the Aegean was found on Crete • It is believed that Ancient Greek civilization had its roots in Minoan civilization • Minoan civilization was first discovered by Sir Arthur Evans when he uncovered the palace of Knossos in 1900 • He named the culture “Minoan” after King Minos of Greek myth • The civilization heavily worshiped bulls • According to Greek myth, Minos captured the minotaur and kept it under his palace in a labyrinth, thought to be Knossos • The palace at Knossos was built during the Neopalatial Period (1700-1450 BCE) • It contained administrative and residential quarters with a total of over 1,300 rooms and had indoor plumbing

39. A fresco inside Knossos

40. Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete • During the Bronze Age, Minoan Crete was a thalassocracy (sea empire) • This included a powerful navy and overseas trade • Their trade networks ran throughout the Mediterranean region • This included the trade of copper, tin, ivory, and gold • They also developed their own written language: Linear-A • It is not similar to any other written language of the time • Prior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more sophisticated that the mainland Greeks • They had a strong influence on the area and most likely dominated the Greeks culturally and possibly politically

41. Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete • Around 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse • Many historians believed that the collapse was due to invasions by the mainland Greeks • However, new evidence is coming about that the eruption of nearby Thera had an impact • It occurred sometime between 1627 and 1600 BCE, and had lasting effects on Minoan civilization • It produced deadly ash clouds that crippled cities and fleets, and created tsunamis with waves up to 50 feet • It set off climate change that ruined crops and led to political unrest • These short term effects may have started a long downturn in Minoan civilization

43. Mycenaean Greece • The geography of Greece plays a very important role in the development of its history and culture • Greece has a long seacoast with numerous harbors • This helped them develop into a seafaring people who could easily trade with other civilizations in the Near East • Much of interior consists of mountain ranges that surround small plains and river valleys • The mountains isolated the Greeks from one another, which meant that the communities would develop independently • This led to rivalries between the small states because each wanted to keep their style of independence • Though they had been dominated by the Minoans, the Greeks started to come into their own around 1600 BCE

44. Mycenaean Greece • Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 BCE) was Bronze Age or “pre-Hellenic” Greece • This period set the foundations for Classical (Hellenic) Greece • During this period, the individual city-states were developed • They were theocracies headed by a king, who was also a war leader • Underneath him was a political and religious aristocracy that ran the government • The focal point of these states were the citadels • They were fortified palaces which were designed after the Minoan and Hittite palaces • Royal families and officials lived in the citadels while the rest of society lived outside the walls

45. Mycenaean Greece • Mycenaean Greece was a warrior society • They prided themselves with their warrior deeds • Artwork of the time included murals of hunting and battle scenes • It is believed that the Mycenaeans expanded their territory through military means • Homer’s Iliad supposedly describes such battles including the Trojan Wars • By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the palace at Knossos • They adopted many of the aspects of Minoan civilization • They were a thalassocracy • They also transformed the Minoan Linear A alphabet into their own Linear B—the earliest Greek writing

46. Mycenaean Greece • By the 13th century BCE, Mycenaean Greece was on the decline • It started out as internal conflicts between the cities • By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended • Historians debate the cause of this collapse • Some argue that it was the Dorians • They were a less civilized people from the north who supposedly invaded but there is no historical proof of this • Most historians believe that it was internal collapse caused by conflicts between the Mycenaean kings • Other factors, such as earthquake, drought, famine, and disease could have played a part • More recently, some historians think they were invaded by an unknown group called the Sea Peoples

47. The Sea People

48. The Sea People • In the 12th century BCE, a new group known as the Sea People was invading the Near East from the north • Historians know very little about this group • They may have been from either Asia Minor or the Aegean region or were actually Mycenaeans fleeing the internal problems at home • They were most likely displaced refugees who were fleeing widespread crop failure and famine • Their path of destruction started in the north • They may have contributed to the fall of Mycenaean Greece • They did disrupt the highly developed trade network of the Aegean region • The kingdoms had to face overpopulation from the fleeing populations of Greece • This led to widespread food shortages and warfare

49. The Sea People • The Sea People then moved into Anatolia and down the eastern Mediterranean bringing total destruction • They eventually came in contact with Egypt • They attacked during the reign of Ramses III (c.1185 BCE) but were quickly defeated both on land and at sea • Proof of their existence comes from a depiction of the Egyptian victory in a relief in one of Ramses’ temples • The main outcome of the invasion of the Sea People was the almost complete destruction of Near East civilization • The international system that had been developed had been destroyed • Complete civilizations were destroyed as well: Mycenaean Greece, Hittites, and the Kassites

50. The Sea People • While both Egypt and Assyria survived the attacks, they went into a long period of economic and political decline • This was mainly due to the loss of their major trading partners • This marks the end of the Bronze Age • These catastrophic events are also known as the “Bronze Age collapse” • With the power vacuum created in the Near East, there is now the rise of new governments and cultures • Specifically in Assyria and Persia but other smaller states as well • There was also the development of a new metallurgical technology: iron • This ushered in the Iron Age