Chapter 6 “learning”

1. Learning is the modification through experience of pre-existing behavior and understanding. Chapter 6 “learning”

2. Habituation is considered a simple form of adaptive learning. • Organisms stop paying attention to stimuli that are often repeated and that don’t signal any important environmental events. Learning About stimuli

3. A-Process B-process • The A-Process is an almost reflexive increase or decrease in some response. • The B-Process causes an opposite or opposing response. Opponent Process Theory

4. Ivan Pavlov’s experiment was the first demonstration of classical conditioning. • Pavlov’s experiment had three phases: • Phase One: A natural reflex and a neutral stimulus were established. • Phase Two: The neutral stimulus and the stimulus causing the natural reflex were repeatedly paired. • Third Phase: The neutral stimulus alone caused some form of the natural reflex to occur. Classical conditioning: learning signals and associations.

5. Classical Conditioning • In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex or other response until the formerly neutral stimulus elicits a similar response. • Elements • UCS • UCR • CS • CR

6. The CS will continue to elicit a CR only if the UCS continues to appear at least some of the time. • If the CS and UCS are unpaired (that is, the CS is not followed by the UCS), the CR gets weaker and weaker and undergoes extinction. Conditioned response over time: extinction

7. However, the learned relationship between the CS and UCS isn’t completely forgotten. • Reconditioning—the relationship between the CS and UCS is relearned as the stimuli are paired once again. This time the CS will elicit the CR much more rapidly. • Spontaneous Recovery—occurswhen, after no presentation of either the CS or the UCS for a period of time, a single presentation of the CS elicits the CR. Spontaneous Recovery

8. Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar but not identical to the original stimulus also elicits the response. Stimulus Generalization

9. Stimulus discrimination is a complementary process through which organism learn to differentiate between stimuli that are similar but not identical to the CS. Stimulus Discrimination

10. In classical condition, the CS acts as a signal that the UCS is about to appear. Situations that highlight and strengthen the CS-UCS relationship will produce stronger CRs. Signaling of Significant Events

11. Classical Conditioning produces the strongest CRs when the CS precedes the UCS by no more than a few seconds. Timing

12. A strong CR will be developed if a very noticeable CS is reliably followed by the UCS. Predictability

13. The relationship between the CS and the UCS is learned faster as the salience or intensity of the CS and UCS increases. Signal Strength

14. Often more than one CS is associated with a UCS. The Cs that is most attended to will be the best predictor of the UCS. Attention

15. Second-Order Conditioning, occurs when a second conditioned stimulus predicts the presence of the first conditioned stimulus, which predicts the presence of the UCS. Second-Order Conditioning

16. Humans and animals may be innately likely or biologically “prepared” to learn certain adaptive associations. • Nausea is likely to be a conditioned response to an internal stimulus such as taste (conditioned taste aversion), and pain is likely to be a conditioned response to an external stimulus such as noise. Biopreparedness

17. Learned Immune Responses. Immune responses can be classically conditioned by pairing a neutral stimulus (CS) with a drug (UCS) that, for example, prevents or reduces an allergy attack or increases circulating natural killer cells. After conditioning, the CS alone will elicit a conditioned immune response. Some Applications of Classical Conditioning:

18. Phobias are fears of objects or situations that are not harmful. Classical conditioning can both produce (via stimulus generalization) and eliminate (through systematic desensitization) phobias. Phobias

19. Some Ranchers have set out mutton laced with lithium for wolves and coyotes. • The dizziness and severe nausea (UCR) caused by the lithium becomes associated with the taste and smell of mutton (CS) thus making sheep an undesirable meal. Predator Control

20. People learn more than just an association between neutral and unconditioned stimuli. • For many behaviors, the stimuli that follow an action are important. • In other words, people learn to respond in a way that brings about positive consequences. Operant Conditioning: Learning the consequences of behavior

21. According to the law of effects, if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is followed by a reward, that response is more likely to be made the next time the stimulus is encountered. From the Puzzle box to the skinner box.

22. Responses that are “instrumental” meaning they help produce some rewarding or desired effect, are learned; therefore, Thorndike called this learning instrumental conditioning. Skinner’s emphasis on how an organism learns to “operate on” its environment to produce a positive effect led him to rename instrumental conditioning to operant conditioning. Instrumental

23. Operants and Reinforcers. Escape and Avoidance Conditioning Punishment Discriminative Stimuli Stimulus Control Basic components of Operant conditioning

24. An operant is a behavioral response that has some effect on an organism’s environment. • In operant conditioning people learn the relationship between the operants and their consequences. • A reinforcer is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavioral response will occur again. Operants and Reinforcers:

25. Positive Reinforcers—are positive stimuli that act like rewards. Negative Reinforcers—are negative stimuli that, once removed, encourage or reinforce behavior. Two Types of Reinforcers

26. Negative reinforcements are used in escape conditioning. • In escape conditioning, an organism learns behaviors that lead to an escape from an unpleasant situation (negative reinforcement) Escape Conditioning

27. Negative reinforcements are used in avoidance conditioning. • In avoidance conditioning, an organism learns behaviors that allow it to completely avoid an unpleasant situation. • Avoidance conditioning is very strong and may prevent an organism from learning new behaviors. Avoidance conditioning

28. Punishment presents an aversive stimulus or removes a pleasant stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Punishment

29. It does not eliminate learning: it merely suppresses a behavior. • If an organism knows that punishment is not likely, then the behavior is repeated • It is not effective unless it immediately follows the undesired behavior. • May be associated with the punisher so that eventually the punisher is feared. • Organisms being punished may learn to relate to others in an aggressive manner. • Makes clear what behaviors are incorrect, but it does not provided any demonstration of desired behavior. Disadvantages to Punishment

30. One should punish the behavior not the person. Punish immediately Use severe enough punishment to eliminate the behavior. Explain and reinforce more appropriate behaviors. Punishment can work if used wisely

31. Discriminative Stimuli signal to an organism that reinforcement is available if a certain response is made. • This response is said to be under stimulus control. Discriminative stimuli

32. Recognizing a stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus that signaled reinforcement. Stimulus Generalization

33. Shaping Secondary Reinforcement Delay and Size of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules and Extinction Forming and strengthening operant behavior

34. Shaping is the creation of new responses never before displayed. • Reinforcing successive approximations (behaviors more and more like the desired response) of the desired behavior. Shaping

35. Often, operant conditioning will begin with primary reinforcers—eventsor stimuli that are intrinsically rewarding…food. A secondary reinforceris a previously neutral stimulus that , if paired with a stimulus that is already reinforcing, will itself take on reinforcing properties….token economy. Secondary Reinforcement

36. Operant condition is strongest when the delay in receiving a reinforcer is short, and when the reinforcer is large. Delay and size of Reinforcement

37. On a continuous reinforcement schedule, every correct response receives a reward. On partial, or intermittent reinforcement schedules, reinforcement is received only some of the time. Schedules of Reinforcement

38. A reward is given after a fixed number of responses. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedules

39. A reward is given after an average number of responses. Variable Ratio Schedule

40. Rewards the first response displayed after a fixed time interval. Fixed Interval Schedule

41. Rewards the first response after a varying time interval. Variable Interval Schedule

42. Eliminating reinforcers for behavioral responses eventually causes the behavioral response to cease. • Partial reinforcement extinction effect demonstrates that it is more difficult to extinguish an operant behavior learned under a partial rather than a continuous reinforcement schedule. Schedules and extinction

43. Primary reinforcers are items that fulfill basic needs or are inherently rewarding experiences, such as relief from pain. Why Reinforcers work?

44. The Premack Principle asserts that each person has a hierarchy of behvioral preferences, and that the higher an activity is in that hierarchy, the greater its reinforcement power. The Premack Principle

45. Contends that any activity can become a reinforcer if access to it has been restricted for a time. Disequalibrium hypothesis

46. Biological psychologists have found that stimulation of “pleasure centers” in the brain is a powerful reinforcer, suggesting a physiological component to reinforcement. Biological explanation

47. Operant conditioning can be used to teach people the “rules” of social behavior and to eliminate problematic behavior and reinforce positive, desired behavior in people afflicted with mental retardation, autism, and other behavior disorders. Operant conditioning principles can also be used to help people understand the stimuli that trigger behaviors they want to eliminate (smoking or overeating). Understanding and avoiding discriminative stimuli can reduce undesired behavior. Operant Conditioning of Human Behavior

48. Cognitive processes, such as how people store, represent and use information, can influence learning. Cognitive Process in Learning

49. Humans and animals placed in situations that eliminate their control over the environment tend to give up any effort to exert control over their environment in a new situation. • They learn to be helpless Learned Helplessness

50. Learning that is not immediately evident in an organism’s behavior is known as latent learning. Latent Learning