The Need for Psychological Science

1. The Need for Psychological Science

2. The Need for Psychological ScienceExamples of Faulty Reasoning • Hindsight Bias“I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon • Overconfidence The tendency to think we know more than we do • Confirmation biasA tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions • False consensus effect The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs • Belief biasThe tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning • Belief perseverance The tendency to cling to one’s conceptions after the basis on which they were formed are discredited

3. Research Methods in Psychology • Descriptive Methods • Naturalistic Observation • Case Studies • Surveys • Correlational research (May include survey, interviews, tests, naturalistic observation, longitudinal, cross-sectional studies) • Experimental • Quasi-Experimental (no random assignment to condition) • SLG Distinguish among the various research methods and be able to identify the relative advantages and disadvantages of each

4. Research Methods in Psychology

5. Descriptive Research Methods • Naturalistic observation • Advantages • Avoids observer effect/reactivity (of subject) • Provides ideas for further research • Disadvantages • Potentially time consuming • No control of variables or over extraneous variables • Not replicable • Examples – Piaget, Naturalistic examples, Quasi… • SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation and provide an example of this type of research

6. Descriptive Research Methods • Surveys, interviews, questionnaires and tests • Advantages • Relatively inexpensive, easy way of collecting large amounts of data (attitudes, interests, aptitudes) • Assuming a true random sample – generalizable • Disadvantages • Poor construction or administration of questions • Poor sample= unrepresentative (not generalizable) • Measures beliefs, not behaviors • Issues of self-report, memory and honesty • SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of surveys/questionairres and identify an example of this type of research

7. Descriptive Research Methods • Case studies – Of individuals, groups or phenomena • Advantages • Potentially, deeply revealing about individuals • Disadvantages • No experimental control • Sample size extremely small – generalizability? • Potential bias, both subject and experimenter • Examples, Phineas Gage, Freud and Little Hans, H.M. NPR • SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of case studies and provide an example of this type of research

8. Descriptive Research Methods • Archival Research • Advantages • Enormous amounts of data used to see trends relationships and outcomes • Disadvantages • No control over data collection or if reliable • Examples – Analysis of studies conducted by other researchers, or look at historical data (e.g. the Wild Child) • SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of archival research and provide an example

9. Research Methods • Longitudinal method Examples? Ads/Disads? • Cross-sectional method Advantages? • Cross-cultural method Purposes?

10. Correlational Studies • Correlational studies look at the degree of relationship between variables and not the effect of one variable on another variable • Correlation DOES NOTequal causation. A relationship may be suggested, but it does not prove that one variable causes the other to change. For example, a correlational study may suggest a relationship between academic success an self-esteem, but it does not mean that academic success causes increases self-esteem… • C&Cheadlines • SLG Provide an example of a correlational study and explain why it does not prove causality • Distinguish between causal and correlational claims

11. Scatterplots and Correlation • Correlation coefficient (Pearson-product moment correlation coefficent) measures 3 types • +1.00 = Positive (or direct) • -1.00 = Negative (indirect) • 0 = No correlation • SLG Distinguish between positive, negative and no correlation

12. Correlational Studies

13. Correlational Studies • Examples of Positive Correlation • 1. SAT scores and college those with higher SAT scores also have higher grades in college • 2. Happiness and helpfulness as people’s happiness level increases, so does their helpfulness • Examples of Negative Correlation • 1. Education and years in jail people who have more years of education tend to have fewer years in jail • 2. Crying and being held babies held less tend to cry more • SLG Distinguish between positive and negative correlation

14. Correlational Studies - Problems • Illusory correlation detecting relationships where none exist(weather=cold). Other examples? • Third-Variable • Research showed a strong correlation between contraceptive use and number of electrical appliances in the home (Li, 1975).   Why?   • CorrelationMethodsReviewWS • SLG Provide examples of problems related to correlational claims

15. Experimentation • Important Terms/Concepts. Most know…must know • hypothesis • independent/dependent variables • operational definitions (quantifiable) • population and random/stratified sample • representative sample • generalizability • experimental and control group (or condition) • random assignment • placebo use and effect • confounding variables • single and double blind procedures • statistical method/significance • replication

16. Define your Population • Populationthe group researchers wish to study • All humans? • People with depression? • Adolescents? • SLG Distinguish between population and a sample

17. Sampling • Sample a subgroup of your population • In order for results to be generalizable to the population, a sample must be representative (size is key) • Random sample everyone in the population has an equal chance of being in your sample • SLG Explain the relationship among the concepts of random sampling, representativeness, and generalizability

18. Operational Definitions (for Variables) • Definitions should be clearly defined and quantifiable • Operational definitions reduce subjectivity and expectancy effects and allow for replication • SLG Explain what is meant by an operational definition. Provide an example of an operational definition for both the independent and dependent variable in a given experiment

19. Independent and Dependent Variables • Practice in Identifying Variables • IDVDExercises • SLG Distinguish between independent and dependent variables

20. Confounding (Hidden) Variables • Confounding variables Variables in a study that are not controlled for (outside factors, e.g.?) • Ways to control for confounding variables • Large sample size (more apt to be representative) • Random assignmentto groups (control and experimental) • Blinding - Single v.double • Single controls for reactivity (observer effects) • Double controls for expectancy effects (research bias) • Placebos or sham treatment • SLG Explain what is meant by a confounding variable IYOW

21. Research pitfalls • Experimenter Bias • Self-fulfilling prophecy The experimenter arrives at conclusions that support his/her hypotheses based on the need to do so, not data • Halo effectsThe tendency for people to transfer a positive opinion based on irrelevant information, i.e., people tend to think that more attractive people are also smarter • SLG Provide an explanation for and examples of different kinds of experimenter bias

22. Research pitfalls • Observer effect (aka reactivity) the effect the experimenter’s presence has on subjects • The Hawthorne effect is the tendency for change to occur simply because subjects are aware an experiment is being conducted • Social desirability bias is the tendency for subjects to be able to respond in an experiment in a way that they believe would be most socially desirable • SLG Define and provide an example of different kinds of observer effects

23. Ethics in Experimentation • APA Requirements/Guidelines - Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002) • Human experimentation must cause no harm • Informed consent • Confidentiality • Debriefing • Research institutions must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) • Role of deception? (Baumrind) • SLG Know, describe and apply the APA ethical guidelines

24. Animal experimentation • Controversies • Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees • Appropriate Beneficial and Caring (ABC) Guidelines • Issues of anthropomorphism, generalization, and anthropocentrism • SLG Explain the controversies related to animal experimentation in psychology