Mussolini’s Italy

1. Mussolini’s Italy 1922 - 1943

2. Defeat in Victory • World War One Ambitions • Treaty of Versailles Setbacks • National Debt Expanded to pay for War • Inflation Rampant • Destroyed Middle Class Savings • Fixed Salaries hit • Industry happy as long as war continued • Post war contracts ended – Job cuts • Labour Militancy • Demobilisation • Unemployment soars

3. Polarised Politics • Newly enfranchised Working Class flock to Socialist Party • Russian Revolution • Planned overthrow of Liberal State • Conservatives petrified of Bolshevik style takeover • Liberals - Falling between the Stools • Seen as caving in to Workers • Or, as not forcing reform fast enough • November 1919 elections • Universal Male Suffrage

4. Mutilated Victory • Liberals blamed for disastrous Versailles deal • Fiume regarded as essential for new Yugoslav state • Dalmatia denied • German colonies denied • Liberalism and Parliamentary democracy blamed by military and Nationalists • Liberals lumped together with Socialist Bolsheviks • New dynamic Italy required • D’Annunzio provides prototype • 2,000 ex-soldiers and nationalists take Fiume by force • Liberal Government does not use force to Prevent D’Annunzio

5. Mussolini’s Rise • Socialist Youth • Libya • Editor of Avanti • Aggressive • Vitriolic • Attacked Liberal State • Advocated violent Socialist Revolution • World War One • Split with Socialists • Imperialist war versus speeding up revolution • Mussolini in favour of war • Il Popolo D’Italia

6. The Shift to the Right • Mussolini’s War Service • 1915 – 1917 Corporal • Wounded in accident • Il Popolo Editor • Blames Liberal Government for Caporetto • Italy needs a Dictator to guide country to victory • ‘Newspaper of Combatants and Producers’ • As opposed to parasitic Businessmen/Profiteers, Socialist Pacifists and Liberals • ‘Combat Group’ Fasci di Combattimento • March 1919 • 100 anti –Liberals (and Anti-Socialist (Class Struggle)) • Nationalists, Republicans, Anarchists, Futurists, Radical Poets and Painters • Radical Programme of Immediate Demands • New Assembly, Abolition of Nobility, Republic, Co-operatives • Use Violence and Intimidation against Opponents

7. November 1919 Elections • Universal Suffrage and Proportional Representation • Popolari • 100 Seats • No single voice or ideological agreement • Socialists • 156 seats – the largest party • Northern based • Irresponsible and uncompromising leadership • Split over Soviet ‘Opportunities’ • Independent Socialists • 21 • Liberals • 23 rightists • 91 Giolitti Centrists • Radical liberals down to 67 • Fascists • ZERO – Nothing – Nada – Not one Deputy! • No overall majority! Radical Liberal Nitti soldiers on with Minority government

8. Liberal Suicide • Nitti’s government falls over Fiumi • Giolitti Coalition • Liberals, Radicals, Popolari and some Socialists • Economic Chaos • Strikes, clashes, Lock outs • Giolitti remains ‘Neutral’ • Enrages Industrialists • Does not satisfy Trade Unionists/Socialists • Fascists note weakness and offer to fill gap • Leads to deal with the devil!

9. Fascist Constitutional Engagement? • Rising tide of Violence • Local criminals and thugs join in • Provide ‘Protection’ to landowners & Industrialists • Help against striking socialists • Bolshevik threat milked • Mussolini’s Perceived authority over Fascist Squads • Through Il Popolo d’Italia • Claims to be able to control Squads • Convinces squads of benefit of unified leadership

10. Out – Foxing the Fox • Giolitti attempts deal with Mussolini • To harness Anti-Socialist sentiments • Confers respectability on Fascist thugs • Authorities turn blind eye to Fascist excesses • 100 socialists die • First Fascist Foothold • Mussolini himself elected • PR Lists

11. May 1921 Election Results • Government bloc (184) • Extreme Nationalists 10 • Fascists 35 • National Bloc (Giolitti) 139 • opposition (175) • Radicals (Liberal Democrats) 68 • Popolari 107 • Left opposition (176) • Reformists 29 • Socialists 123 • Communists 15 • National minorities 9 • Total seats (535)

12. The House of Sand Collapses • Giolitti Haemorrhaging Support • Mussolini withdraws immediately • Foothold achieved • Avoid blame for upcoming crises • Popolari withdraw support over tax • Remaining Liberals distrust each other • Parliamentary collapse mirrored by law and order collapse • Socialists beaten up at will • Fascists beat up socialist deputy in Parliament!

13. Fascist Opportunities • Mussolini converts Fascist movement into a Party • October 1921 • Becomes official leader November 1921 • Broadens appeal • Conservatives • Opposes deals with Unions • Promises to Restore order • Catholics • Opposes Divorces • Help Peasants Improve their lot • Promises to settle Vatican situation • Most of 1919 Left wing promises quietly ditched • Dual Policy • Constitutional Engagement • Political Thuggery

14. Socialist Patience Snaps • Fed up with Violence directed at them • Fed up with government inaction • Fed up with Police Connivance • Call General Strike • July 1922 • Plays into Mussolini’s hands • Fascists attempt to carry on functions of striking workers / Police / Courts / Judge & Jury • Start negotiations with Liberals over running areas of government whilst plotting a Coup D’etat • Fascists claim to be ‘Defenders of Law and Order’

15. The March on Rome • ‘For my part I prefer 50,000 rifles to 5 million votes.’ • Plan • 30,000 fascists take over Northern Cities and then March on Rome • Reality • Mussolini negotiates with Monarch • King is Commander in Chief of Army • Cousin Aosta a Fascist sympathiser • Losing patience with weak Liberal Governments • Several thousand Fascists camp outside of Rome in rain waiting for orders • Government forces sent to disperse Fascists congregating

17. The King hands the Pretender the Throne • Victor Emmanuel changes mind • As troops are approaching Blackshirts, King refuses to agree to ‘Martial Law’ • Army frozen • Government Resigns • King approaches conservative liberal Salandra • Liberals cannot agree to support Salandra government • Mussolini invited to become Prime Minister • October 29th 1922 • Mussolini takes train to Rome • Blackshirts parade victoriously through Rome

18. Consolidating Power • Cautious Start by Mussolini • First Administration • Only 4 Fascists (out of 14) • Popolari and Liberals • Happy to use Fascists to crush Socialists • Then plan to absorb/discard fascists • Mussolini builds up tension • Threat of Socialist violence • Threat of Bolshevik Revolution • Most Violence Fascist Inspired • Demanded a 12 month period to rule by decree • Until situation stabilises

19. Requesting Power • “With 300,000 young men, fully armed, ready for anything and almost religiously prompt to obey any command of mine, I could have punished all those who have slandered the Fascisti… I could have shut up Parliament and formed a government of Fascisti exclusively. I could have done so, but I did not wish to do so, at any rate at the moment… Before arriving here we were asked on all sides for a programme. It is not, alas, programmes that are wanting in Italy., but men to carry them out.”

20. Emperor Mussolini? • Rule by decree vote • Liberals and Popolari fall for ‘Temporary’ Dictator Mussolini • Including Salandra, Giolitti and Facta • Only Socialists and Communists vote against

21. The Emperor consolidates his power amongst the Fascists • Grand Council of Fascism formed • Proposes all laws to the ‘Government’ • Mussolini appoints All Grand Councillors • Reduces power of Regional Fascist Leaders • Fascist Squadrismo converted to militia • 30,000 Private ‘Loyal’ Army • Paid for by State • Used to Intimidate all opponents

22. Divide & Conquer • Industrialists • Drops Giolitti’s Tax Evasion clamp down • Strike Breaking • Church • Bans Contraception • RE compulsory in State Schools • Pope withdraws support for Popolari

23. Tailoring the Electoral System • Acerbo Law • The largest party to receive 2/3rds of seats (as long as it secures 25% of vote) • Guarantees working Majority • Guarantees end to weak coalitions • Guarantees Dictatorship! • Blackshirt intimidation • of Parliamentarians

24. Constitutional Confirmation of Power1924 Election Results • Fascist & Right Wing Liberal Electoral Pact • 66% of vote • Extensive ‘Legal’ Intimidation • Extensive Ballot Rigging • Fascist deputies • From 35 to 374 • Socialists & Communists still receive 2.5 million votes

25. The Matteoti MurderMussolini Implicated • Socialist Giacomo Matteoti presents evidence of Fascist intimidation to Parliament • Fascist thugs abduct Matteoti • Broad daylight • Dragged into car • Stabbed to death • Mussolini denial of involvement • Press links Mussolini to murderers • Haemorrhages public support • Remaining non-Fascist deputies set up rival parliament • Ask King to dismiss Mussolini • Giolitti and Salandra prop up weakened Mussolini

26. All or Nothing! • July 1924 Introduces • Press Censorship • Bans Public Meetings by Opposition Parties • Fascist Ultimatum to Mussolini • Haemorrhaging Support • Declare Dictatorship or step aside! • King’s Position Pivotal • January 1925 Introduces • Opposition Political Parties banned • Free Trade Unions banned • Press Censorship strengthened • New Secret Police created • New Courts to try political crimes • Mayors nominated rather than elected • Mussolini could rule by Decree

27. Essay • “The Socialist threat and the belief that Italy had suffered a mutilated victory in the first world war enabled Fascism to grow and take power.” How far do you agree with this statement?

28. Increasing Mussolini’s Control • 1925 Last Fascist Party Congress • Internal arguments banned by Mussolini • 1926 Cabinet Meetings suspended • Mussolini takes Foreign, Interior and Defence ministeries for himself • 1926 Parliamentary powers curtailed • No discussions on policy, no amending of legislation, no criticism of government allowed • 1926 Election law • Working classes in socialist areas prevented from voting • All candidates to be approved by Fascist party • 98% • 1928 All Fascist party appointments made from Rome Headquarters • To undercut Ras • 1939 Parliament dissolves itself • Chamber of Fasces and Corporations

29. The Lateran Agreement • Neutralising Catholicism • 1929 • Pope Recognises • Italian State • Papal States • Rome • Mussolini Recognises • Vatican City • Pays £30 Million compensation to church • Catholicism as official State religion • State to pay salaries of clergy • Clergy prevented from political activity of any kind • Catholic RE compulsory • 1939 Pope recants

30. The Cult of Personality • Control of flow of information • Opposition newspapers suppressed • ‘Press Office’ to distribute ‘authorised’ stories • State Radio Network established • Radios given to all schools • Communal radio centres • Cinema • Official films to precede all films • “The public are stupid, dirty, do not work hard enough and are content with little cinema shows” • Heroic Portrayal of Il Duce • All pictures of Mussolini personally vetted • Man of action, culture, genius, youthfulness • 20 hours a day stories • Lights • Claims all credit, blames all failures • Militarism encouraged • Unrelenting stream of propaganda • Youth Organisations

33. The Corporate State • De Stefani 1922 - 25 • Orthodox Liberal Economics Professor • Boom period • Trade Unions and strikes banned • Reduced State Interference • 1927 Labour Charter - Corporative System • Official unions including employees, employers and Fascists • 1927 Battle of the Lire • Strong currency = strong country • Hits Exports • Import levies on imports • Except for steel, ships and armaments • 1932 World Depression • Intervention • Public Works projects • Bail out of banks • Cheap loans provided • 1935 League of nations sanctions • Autarky • 1925 Battle of Grain • Economies of Scale

34. Foreign Policy • 1923 Corfu • Bombardment and invasion after assassination of Italian General • 1924 Fiume ceded to Italy • 1924 – 26 Albania and Yugoslavia • 1925 Locarno • 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact • 1933 Hitler visit • 1934 Dolfuss Affair • 1935 Abyssinia • 1936 Rome Berlin Axis • 1936 – 38 Spanish Civil War • 1940 Invasion of France Distraction or Expansion?

38. Comparison with Nazi Germany