EDUC1004 Language and Literacy for Teachers

1. EDUC1004Language and Literacy for Teachers Topic 2 Language: Making Meanings in Social Contexts.

2. Writer’s Journal Last week you write about an object or place that was very familiar to you after making close observations. How did those observations change the way you saw Very familiar items? How did observations impact on your ability to write about them?

3. Advice for becoming a brave writer by Andy Griffiths’ (writing journals) http://splash.abc.net.au/home#!/media/2163453/andy-griffiths-advice-for-becoming-a-brave-writer

4. A discussion point with which to start: Discussion point 1: Identify one key thing you learned or realised about language from last week’s study. Share your knowledge with others in the Collaborate session.

5. Here is another way of defining language: Language is a form of behaviour, a series of cultural and social practices that should be seen as appropriate (or not appropriate) for a given context (Green 2006). It is not just a set of cognitive skills.

6. to explore how social context impacts on the language we use; • to reflect on language as social behaviour; • to consider language as a marker of identity; • to begin to explore the implications of stereotypical attitudes to language in education.

7. Recall an occasion when you were made to feel awkward about your use of language. What was the circumstance? Who made you feel awkward? What impact did the ‘occasion’ have on you and why? Feedback/reflect – on impact and the reason. What are the key issues emerging from discussion?

8. Activity 1 The Incident Whilst out walking, you observe a man ahead of you. Ahead of him is a young woman. The man appears to speed up until he is alongside the young woman. When she sees him she flinches and screams. He reaches out and takes her shoulder bag. He then shouts something at her and runs along the street. Now consider a re-telling of the incident in two contexts Context 1 – you were walking to the café to meet a friend when you saw the incident. Recount the incident to your friend over coffee. Context 2 – you are in court as a witness for the prosecution. Recount the incident to the court. If a third person heard both conversations, would they notice any differences and if so, what might they be?

9. James Gee calls these social contexts- Discourses (with a capital ‘D’)

10. ADiscourseis a socially accepted association among ways of using language, of thinking, feeling, believing, valuing, and of acting that can be used to identify oneself as a member of a socially meaningful group or ‘social network’ (Gee, 1990, p. 143) • Within a Discourse there are many discourses (small ‘d’) or connected stretches of language that make sense. Social Contexts and Semantics. • Words have meaning (a semantic) but the contexts in which words are used add to, or change the meaning. • We change our language according to the context of the situation in which we find ourselves. • The context of time - Language is not static but dynamic. • Diachronic change refers to changes in language over time.

11. Two Types of Diachronic Change in Language. Words remain the same but their semantic changes Twitter – the sound a bird makes Gay – a joyous state awful – inspiring wonder or fear guy – leader of the alleged plot to blow up the English Houses of Parliament in 1605 Words die or fall out of use: afeared – frightened bedlam – an asylum cordwainer - shoemaker fourscore – eighty https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/explore/archaic-words New words are born: burkini – blend of burqua and bikini emoji – small digital icon expressing idea/emotion floordrobe – use of floor-space as a wardrobe http://www.learn-english-today.com/new-words/new-words-in-english2.html

12. Language is contextual • Language is on a continuum from very informal (bonding language, phatic communion) to formal (distancing language). This is called register. The choice of register implies the relationship between those people communicating. • Content and social interaction are also on a continuum. In some talk, content is (or appears to be) more important than the social interaction, this language is usually more formal and distancing. In "small talk" the content is far less important but is used to sustain social interaction (Gee, 2010). It has a phaticfunction. • Phatic communication is popularly known as small talk: the non referential use of languageto share feelings or establish a mood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas. The ritualized formulas of phatic communication (such as "Uh-huh" and "Have a nice day") are generally intended to attract the attention of the listener or prolong communication. Also known as phatic speech, phatic communion, phatic language, social tokens, and chit-chat.

13. Language variety - idiolects, styles, formality/informality (register)

14. Language is varied. One variety can contain many sub-varieties Language consists of: accents, regional varieties, urban varieties, teenage varieties, professional varieties, standard varieties, social class varieties, amongst others…..

15. Social class, Education and Language Low SES students traditionally have been low-achievers in the education system WHY ? Bernstein – identified two language codes – ‘restricted’ and ‘elaborated’ he suggested working class children have access only to the restricted code; but middle class children have access to both; the language of school is in elaborated code; therefore, working class children are disadvantaged. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00030/pdf

16. Bernstein’s theory is controversial because it was interpreted by some to justify language deficit theory. i.e. that working class children do not achieve highly because they do not have sufficient language. It is an argument also used to explain under-achievement of other groups also: e.g. minority ethnic students, Aboriginal students.

17. However, Language deficit theory has been challenged by researchers who propose not deficit but difference. So, Language difference theory suggests all language varieties are equal but different. Two English researchers, Tizard and Hughes (2003), set out to investigate the efficacy of these two theories by exploring the language use in the home and school of pre-school children from middle and working class backgrounds http://au.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0631236155.html

18. Discussion Point 3: Background Information. Tizard and Hughes, (2003) observed pre-school teachers interacting in different ways with children of different social backgrounds. Teachers spent more time talking with children from middle class backgrounds than they did with children from low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds. The teachers also tended to ask the middle class children ‘open-ended’ questions (i.e. questions requiring more than one word answers). However, when talking with the low SES children teachers always used ‘closed questions’ (i.e. questions that encourage single word responses) Questions for discussion: Why do you think the teachers interacted differently with the two groups of children? What do you think might be the impact on the learning and language development of the two different groups, if teachers continue to interact with them differently?

19. However, in the home environment there was little difference in language use between the two groups; mother’s in both groups used comparative, explanatory and conditional language; children in both groups were more verbally eloquent in the home than in school; in the home environment children asked more questions about background experience i.e. heuristic language Further reading for the scholar See Shirley Brice Heath’s review of Tizard and Hughes’ s work in the Harvard Educational ReviewVol 55 No. 4 1985 http://hepgjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.17763/haer.55.4.f057868501jql231?code=hepg-site

20. Discussion Points 4 To what extent has the discussion so far challenged or impacted on your views of language and social class and/or language and ethnicity ? From what you have learned so far about language deficit theory and the findings of Tizard and Hughes, what would you say are the implications for teachers, teaching in schools where there are students from low SES backgrounds, minority ethnic students and Aboriginal students?

21. Michael Halliday’s model of Functional Language provides a different perspective of children’s language • Halliday (1975) identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years. For Halliday, children are motivated to develop language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. • The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. • Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions.

22. Instrumental: This is when the child uses language to express their needs (e.g. "Want juice") • Regulatory: This is where language is used to tell others what to do (e.g. "Go away") • Interactional: Here language is used to make contact with others and form relationships (e.g. "Love you, Mummy") • Personal: This is the use of language to express feelings, opinions, and individual identity (e.g. "Me good girl")

23. The other three functions all help the child to come to terms with his or her environment. • Heuristic: This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment (e.g. Tell me why? 'What the tractor doing?') • Imaginative: Here language is used to tell stories and jokes, and to create an imaginary environment. • Representational: The use of language to convey facts and information. • How do Halliday’s functions of language differ from those of Brumfit?

24. Register (according to M.A.K. Halliday) • Field – What is the subject matter or content of the interaction? (Expression of ideas from the everyday to the specialised). • Tenor – Who are the people involved – their social status, roles, relationship, power and communicative purpose? • Mode – How is the message communicated e.g. face to face (oral), written? Is it formal speech or discussion/ conversation? How is the text organised?

25. Meaning is socially constructed Language is never neutral. Language has a "voice" and an "attitude". Language is directly linked with the child’s social and cultural schema established by the activities and mores of the cultural group. (Sharifian, Rochecouste, Malcolm, Konigsberg & Collard, 2004)

26. So, Language is socio-cultural Children use language to make and negotiate meaning to make sense of their world. Words have minimal meaning unless you know the context Educators have long been aware that culture and identity are central to learning. To deny someone’s identity is to deny them their right to learn from within their own experience, their own culture, their right to read the world, from within one’s own framework, rather than one imposed from the outside. (Ah Chee, 1998)

27. Implications for Teaching • As a teacher of early childhood and primary school children we need to: • recognise our impact on children’s development • support children’s skill development • help children develop a sense of identity and capacity to participate effectively in a democracy for justice and equity. • Teachers have an impact on: • the language that is validated in the classroom and the impact of that on teaching and learning • text choices - what is included and what is not • Teachers need a strong knowledge and understanding of how language can be developed.

28. References used Ah Chee, D. (1998). Aboriginal self-determination development strategies and adult education. Paper presented at the Challenging Pathways 2nd National Indigenous Peoples' Training Conference. Surfers Paradise, Qld. Giles, H., Coupland, N. & Coupland, J. (1991). "Accommodation Theory: Communication, Context, and Consequence". In: H. Giles, N. Coupland & J. Coupland(eds.), Contexts of Accommodation. Developments in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tizard, B. & Hughes, M. (2003) Young Children Learning 2nd Ed. Oxford: Blackwell Sharifian, F., Rochecouste, J., Malcolm, I., & Collard, G. (2004). Improving Understanding of Aboriginal Literacy: Factors in Text Comprehension: a project of the ABC of Two-Way Literacy and Learning. Department of Education and Training ESL Resource Centre.