JPN494: Japanese Language and Linguistics JPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics

1. JPN494: Japanese Language and LinguisticsJPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics Phonology & Phonetics (4)

2. Phonological Rules • A phoneme (or a sequence of phonemes) may be realized in different ways (as different phones/sequences of phones). • The alternation between allophones is generally conditioned by phonological (or morpho-phonological) rule.

3. Phonological Rules • Phonological rules refer to phonological contexts (surrounding the target phoneme) only. • E.g. “A voiceless stop sound becomes aspirated when it occurs in the initial position of a stressed syllable (in English)” • /p/, /t/, /k/ ⇒ [ph], [th], [kh]

4. Phonological Rules • Morpho-phonological rules refer to specific expressions or classes of expressions. • E.g. The plural marker -s /z/ is realized as: • [əz] when it follows (a noun that ends with) /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, or /ʤ/ (aces, quizzes,churches) • otherwise: • [s] when it follows a voiceless consonant (chips, kicks) • otherwise: • [z] (sofas, kegs)

5. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese #1 Devoicing Rule • A high vowel (/i/ or /ɯ/) is voiceless when (i) it follows a voiceless consonant and (ii) either it precedes a voiceless consonant or it occurs at the end of a word • Otherwise, it is voiced.

6. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • くさ: /kɯsa/ → [kɯsa] • くま: /kɯma/ → [kɯma] • くし: /kɯsi/ → [kɯʃi] • きし: /kisi/ → [kjiʃi] • キス: /kisɯ/ → [kjisɯ] • ストライク: /sɯtoraikɯ/ → [sɯtoɾaikɯ]

7. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese #2 Nasal Assimilation • /N/ is realized the nasal sound that shares the same place of articulation as the immediately preceding consonant. • When /N/ is not followed by any consonant, it is realized either as [ɴ] or [ŋ] “Assimilation” is a phenomenon whereby a phonetic feature (p-o-a, voicing, etc.) extends to a neighboring sound.

8. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • 本 (ほん) /hoN/ ⇒ [hoɴ] (～ [hoŋ]) • 散歩 (さんぽ) /saNpo/ ⇒ [sampo] • 引退 (いんたい) /iNtai/ ⇒ [intai] • 天気 (てんき) /teNki/ ⇒ [teŋki] • こんにちは /koNnitiwa/ ⇒ [konjnjiʧiwa]

9. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese #3 Alveolar Alternation (1) • /t/ is realized as [ʦ] when it is followed by /ɯ/. • /t/ is realized as [ʧ] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/). • Otherwise, /t/ is realized as [t]. #4 Alveolar Alternation (2) • /s/ is realized as [ʃ] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/). • Otherwise, /s/ is realized as [s]. #5 Alveolar Alternation (3) • /z/ is realized as [ʒ] (or [ʤ]) when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/). • Otherwise, /z/ is realized as [z] (or [ʣ]).

10. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • ik-ɯ (行く; u-verb) • 行かない: ik-ana-i ⇒ ikanai • 行きます: ik-imas-ɯ ⇒ ik(j)imasɯ • 行く: ik-ɯ ⇒ ikɯ • 行けば: ik-eba ⇒ ikeba • kat-ɯ (勝つ; u-verb) • 勝たない: kat-ana-i ⇒ katanai • 勝ちます: kat-imas-ɯ ⇒ kaʧimasɯ • 勝つ: kat-ɯ ⇒ kaʦɯ • 勝てば: kat-eba ⇒ kateba

11. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • kas-ɯ (貸す; u-verb) • 貸さない: kas-ana-i → kasanai • 貸します: kas-imas-ɯ → kaʃimasɯ • 貸す: kas-ɯ → kasɯ • 貸せば: kas-eba → kaseba • 判ずる (はんずる, infer) [hanzɯrɯ] vs. 判じ物　(はんじもの, puzzle) [hanʒimono] • [asi] vs. [aʃi]; [azi] vs. [aʒi]

12. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • 堺 (さかい) [sakai] vs. 社会 (しゃかい) [ʃakai] • 堺: /sakai/ • 社会: /ʃakai/ (option 1) or /sjakai/ (option 2) • 田 (た)[ta] vs. 茶 (ちゃ) [ʧa] • 田: /ta/ • 茶: /ʧa/ or /tja/

13. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese #6 「ハ行」 Alternation • /h/ is realized as [ɸ] when it is followed by /ɯ/. • /h/ is realized as [ç] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/). • Otherwise, /t/ is realized as [h].

14. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • [hɯ] vs. [ɸɯ]; [hi] vs. [çi] • 判 [haɴ] vs. ファン [ɸaɴ] • 判: /haN/ • ファン: /ɸaN/ (option 1) or /hwaN/ (option 2) • 履く [hakɯ] vs. 百 [çakɯ] • 履く: /hakɯ/ • 百: /çakɯ/ (option 1) or /hjakɯ/ (option 2)

15. (Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese • #7 Conjugation Rules (morpho-phonological rules) • Verbal roots ending with a consonant (ru-verbs; 一段動詞) • 借りる (kari-rɯ), やめる (jame-rɯ), 助ける (tasuke-rɯ), … • Verbal roots ending with a consonant (u-verbs; 五段動詞) • 書く (kak-ɯ), 待つ (mat-ɯ), 知る (sir-ɯ), 買う (kaw-ɯ), … • Irregulars • 来る • する(, 批判する, 勉強する, …)

16. 7-1. plain present (non-past) form The sequence of a verb root (VR; 語幹 (ごかん)) and the present marker (morpheme) /rɯ/ is realized as: • [VR + rɯ] when the verb root ends with a vowel; • [VR + ɯ] when the verb root ends with a consonant. • Pairs (tuples) of forms like [rɯ] and [ɯ] are called allomorphs.

17. Similar pairs of allomorphs • [na] (tabe-na-i) and [ana] (kak-ana-i) • [ɾeba] (tabe-ɾeba) and [eba] (kak-eba) • [sase] (tabe-sase-ɾɯ) and [ase] (kak-ase-ɾɯ) • [ɾaɾe] (tabe-ɾaɾe-ɾɯ) and [aɾe] (kak-aɾe-ɾɯ) • [mas] (tabe-mas-ɯ) and [imas] (kak-imas-ɯ)

18. 7-2. plain past form The sequence of a verb root (VR) and the past marker (morpheme) /ta/ is realized as: • [VR + ta] when the verb root ends with a vowel; • Otherwise …

19. If the root ends with a velar consonant (/k/ or /g/) or /s/, insert /i/ after it (insertion) • If the root ends with a sequence of a velar consonant and /i/, delete the velar consonant (deletion) • /kak+ta/ → /kaki+ta/ → /kai+ta/ ⇒ [kaita] (書いた) • /ojog+ta/ → /ojog+da/ → /ojogi+da/ → /ojoi+da/ ⇒ [ojoida] (泳いだ) • /hanas+ta/ → /hanas+i+ta/ ⇒ [hanaʃita] (泳いだ)

20. If the root ends with /t/, /r/, or /w/, replace it with /Q/ (trw→Q) • /kat+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (勝った) • /kaer+ta/ → /kaeQ+ta/ ⇒ [kaetta] (帰った) • /kaw+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (買った) • If the root ends with a voiced consonant, change /ta/ into /da/ (voicing) • If the root ends with /b/, /m/ or /n/, replace it with /N/ (bmn→N) • /job+ta/ → /job+da/ → /joN+da/ ⇒ [jonda] (呼んだ) • /jom+ta/ → /jom+da/ → /joN+da/ ⇒ [jonda] (読んだ) • /ʃin+ta/ → /ʃin+da/ → /ʃiN+da/ ⇒ [jonda] (読んだ)

21. A note on /Q/ • If the root ends with /t/, /r/ or /w/, replace it with /Q/ (trw→Q) • /kat+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (勝った) • /kaer+ta/ → /kaeQ+ta/ ⇒ [kaetta] (帰った) • /kaw+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (買った) • If the root ends with /r/ or /w/, replace it with /t/ (rw→t) • /kat+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (勝った) • /kaer+ta/ → /kaet+ta/ ⇒ [kaetta] (帰った) • /kaw+ta/ → /kat+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (買った)

22. A note on /Q/ • Why do we want the phoneme /Q/? • いっぱい [ippai]: /ippai/ or /iQpai/? • いったい [ittai]: /ittai/ or /iQtai/? • an alternative rule: a sequence of two occurrences of the same consonant is realized as a single long consonant. • *[iptai] (cf. captain [cæptən]) • coda: {φ, /N/, /Q/}

23. A note on /Q/ • Transformation Rules: change a phonemic representation into another phonemic representation (→) • Realization Rules: connect a phonemic representation and a phonetic representation (⇒) (e.g. /si/ ⇒ [ʃi]) • The サ・ザ・タ・ダ・ハ行 alternation rules & the nasal assimilation rule are “realization rules” • The final phase of transformations should not contain a syllable ending with a consonant other than /Q/ or /N/.

24. Rule orderings trw→Q, voicing, bmn→N, insertion, deletion • /job+ta/ → (voicing) /job+da/ → (bmn→N) joN+da/ • /job+ta/ → (bmn→N) /joN+ta/ → (voicing) /joN+da/

25. Rule Orderings • insertion should apply before deletion • /kak+ta/ → (deletion) (n/a) /kak+ta/ → (insertion) /kak+i+ta/ ⇒ *[kak(j)ita] • /kak+ta/ → (insertion) /kak+i+ta/ → (deletion) /ka+i+ta/ ⇒ [kaita]

26. Rule Orderings • voicing should apply before insertion • insertion should apply before deletion • /ojog+ta/ → (insertion) /ojogi+ta/ → (deletion) /ojoi+ta/ → (voicing) (n/a) /ojoi+ta/ ⇒ *[ojoita] • /ojog+ta/ → (insertion) /ojogi+ta/ → (voicing) (n/a) /ojogi+ta/ → (deletion) /ojoi+ta/ ⇒ *[ojoita] • /ojog+ta/ → (voicing) /ojog+da/ → (insertion) /ojogi+da/ → (deletion) /ojoi+da/ ⇒ [ojoida]

27. Alternative past tense formation rules (from Yookoso): • If the root ends with a vowel, put /ta/ after it. • If the root ends with /k/, delete it and put /ita/. • If the root ends with /g/, delete it and put /ida/. • If the root ends with /w/, /t/, or /r/, delete it and put /Qta/. • If the root ends with /n/, /m/, or /b/, delete it and put /Nda/. • If the root ends with /s/, put /ita/.

28. Alternative past tense formation rules: • If the root ends with a vowel, put /ta/ after it. • If the root ends with /k/, delete it and put /ita/. • If the root ends with /g/, delete it and put /ida/. • If the root ends with /w/, /t/, or /r/, delete it and put /Qta/. • If the root ends with /n/, /m/, or /b/, delete it and put /Nda/. • If the root ends with /s/, put /ita/.

29. Lessons • The purpose of a reference grammar (a grammar for learners) is to help learners acquire ability to speak the language. • Theoretical linguistics, on the other hand, seeks to identify grammatical rules that are stored in speakers’ minds. (e.g. Are there such things as phonological transformational rules?) • cf. coach vs. physiologist

30. A practical application? trw→Q, voicing, bmn→N, insertion, deletion • #1, #2, #3, #4, #5 (Dialect A) • #1, #2, #3’, #5 (Dialect B) • #1’, #2, #3’, #4, #5 (Dialect C) • #1’, #3’, #6 (Dialect D)

31. Sequential Voicing (連濁) • 小 ko + 太鼓 taiko → 小太鼓 kodaiko • 竹 take + さお sao → 竹ざお takezao • 鼻 hana + 血 ʧi → 鼻血 hanaʒi (hanaʤi) • 狸 tanɯkji + 汁 ʃiɾɯ → 狸汁 tanɯkjiʒiɾɯ (tanɯkiʤiɾɯ) • 本 hoɴ + 箱 hako → 本箱 hombako • 旅 tabji + 人 çito → 旅人 tabjibjito • 草 kɯsa + 笛 ɸɯe → 草笛 kɯsabɯe

32. /s/ → /z/ • /t/ → /d/ • /k/ → /g/ • /h/ → /b/

33. s → z/ʣ • ʃ → ʒ/ʤ • t → d • ʧ → ʒ/ʤ • ʦ → z/ʣ • k → g • h → b • ç → b • ɸ → b

34. Constraint #1: The SV rule applies only when the second member of a compound is a native word (和語), rather than a Sino-Japanese word (漢語) or a loan word (外来語). • 貧乏神 (びんぼうがみ) vs. 貧乏性 (びんぼうしょう) • 安部屋 (やすべや) vs. 安ホテル • Exceptions: 貿易会社 (ぼうえきがいしゃ), 歌ガルタ, 山ギャンプ (?)

35. Constraint #2 (Lyman’s law): The SV rule does not apply when the second member of a compound has a voiced stop, fricative, or affricate. • 不思議 (ふしぎ) + 蜥蜴 (とかげ) = ?? • 不思議 (ふしぎ) + 花 (はな) = ??

36. 8 4 7 5 6 3 1 2 • Constraint #3 (Right Branching Condition): The SV rule applies only when a potential target is in a right branch constituentat the lowest level.

37. いれ ばし ぬり いれ ぬり はし • [[塗り + 箸]+ 入れ] vs. [塗り + [箸 + 入れ]]

38. [ふしぎ + とり]? • 不思議鳥 • [ふしぎ + [とり + もち]]? • 不思議鳥もち • [おお + [ほし + いも]]? • 大干し芋 • [[きちょう + ほん] + たな]? • 貴重本棚 • [[なま + こめ] + はこ]? • 生米箱

39. Constraint #4: The SV rule does not apply when two members of a compound are semantically juxtaposed. • 草木 (くさき)vs. 草笛 (くさぶえ) • 田畑 (たはた)vs. 田亀 (たがめ)