Discovering Prehistoric Humans: From Paleolithic to Neolithic Revolution

Unit I: Beginning to the Early Modern World

 Students will be able to:  Explain the goals of the course;  Describe the expectations established by the instructor;  Explain the course methodology that will be used throughout the semester;  Describe how scientists, archaeologists, anthropologists, and scholars study the prehistoric past;  Explain the differences between early human groups;  Describe life for early humans during the Paleolithic Age;  Describe human changes that took place during the Neolithic Revolution;  Explain where and why civilizations developed as a result of the Neolithic Revolution; and  Describe the six characteristics of civilizations.

 How do we learn about prehistoric early humans?  Prehistory- time before writing.  Archaeology- study of past societies through analysis of artifacts, or objects that people left behind.  Artifacts include tools, weapons, art, and even buildings.  Anthropology- study of human life and culture.  Culture includes what people wear, how they organize their society, and what they value.  Anthropologists also study artifacts and human fossils (rocklike remains of biological organisms).  Scientific method- used by archaeologists & anthropologists to carry out their work. They excavate, methodically dig up, and examine fossils and artifacts in order to learn about ancient peoples and how they lived.  Dating artifacts and fossils:  0 to 50,000 years old- radiocarbon dating (carbon C-14 levels are measured, which gradually dissipate over time).  0 to 200,000 years old- thermoluminescence (which measures the light given off by electrons trapped in the soil surrounding fossils and artifacts).  0 to millions of years old- DNA analysis if DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is present.

 Hominids: humanlike creatures that walked upright. Earliest hominids- Africa 4 million years ago.  Australopithecus“southern apes,” common ancestor of several types of early humans lived about 3.5 million years ago. In 1974, “Lucy” discovered in Ethiopia- no tools, small brain, but walked on two feet.  Homo habilis“handy human,” lived 2.5 million to 1.6 million years ago, had a larger brain, and used tools.  Homo erectus “upright human,” lived 1.8 million to 100,000 years ago, walked on two legs, arms and legs in modern human proportions. Found in Asia, indicating that Homo erectus was first hominid to leave Africa.  Homo sapiens “wise human,” about 200,000 years ago. More developed brains and mastered fire. Two types of early humans came from Homo sapiens:  Neanderthals: 100,000 B.C. to 30,000 B.C. in Europe and Turkey, used stone tools, made animal skin clothes, and buried their dead.  Homo sapiens sapiens: first in Africa 200,000 years ago and began migrating out of Africa 100,000 years ago, replacing earlier hominids (“out-of-Africa” theory). By 30,000 B.C. replaced Neanderthals (probably out of conflicts).  Homo sapiens sapiens spread all over the globe. Though it took thousands of years, today all humans belong to this subgroup.

 Paleolithic Age (“Stone Age”)- early period of human history (2,500,000 B.C. to 10,000 B.C.) in which humans used basic tools.  Characteristics of the Paleolithic Age:  Nomadic hunting & gathering (hunting animals, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, wild grains, & plants);  Stone tools (axes, spear heads, bows and arrows, fish hooks, harpoons, scraping and cutting tools, & needles);  Men hunted and women gathered edibles and stayed near the camp with children;  Caves or simple structures with wooden poles and animal hides; and  500,000 years ago- used fire (friction fires and later wood drills) for heat, light, safety, and cooking.  Early humans survived the Ice Age (100,000 B.C. to 8000 B.C.) using fires and protective shelters.  Early Human Cave Art:  Art was a communication tool.  Discoveries: 1879 Altamira, Spain; 1940 Lascaux, France; and 1994 Chauvet, France.  Most cave paintings relate to animals- religious rituals to bring good luck in hunting.

 Groups A & C: Make a list of the physical & anatomical changes early humans experienced over time.  Groups B & D: Make a list of the key characteristics and behaviors of early humans in the Paleolithic Age that distinguished them from humans in other ages.

 Neolithic Age- end of the last Ice Age around 8000 B.C. to 4000 B.C. in which humans underwent a revolution (the Neolithic Revolution)- shifting from hunting and gathering to systematic agriculture.  Systematic agriculture- keeping of animals and growing of food on a regular basis.  Domestication of animals- adapting animals for human use (source of meat, milk, and wool).  Sedentary lifestyle- because of a consistent source of food humans settled down instead of remaining nomadic.  Agricultural societies developed around the world in the Neolithic Age.  8000 B.C. to 5000 B.C.- Southwest Asia  6000 B.C.- Nile Valley of Egypt;  6000 B.C.- Central Africa;  7000 B.C. to 5000 B.C.- India;  5000 B.C.- Southeast Asia and Southern China;  6000 B.C.- Northern China; and  7000 B.C. to 5000 B.C.- Mesoamerica (present-day Mexico and Central America) people grew beans, squash, and maize (corn) (the “three sisters”).  Neolithic Farming Villages with specialization of labor. Not everyone needed to produce food. Artisans (skilled workers who made goods to trade) bartered or exchanged goods with neighboring villages.

 Settlements:  Villages and towns with protective walls and storehouses for food and goods.  Surplus goods encouraged trade and artisans developed specialized tools.  Gender roles:  Men were dominant and worked outside of the home, farming, herding, and protecting the community.  Women cared for children and wove cloth near the home.  Metal: discovered around 4000 B.C.- some rocks contain metal and when heated to high temperatures it turns to liquid and can be molded.  Bronze Age & Iron Age:  Bronze Age 3000 B.C. to 1200 B.C.- bronze into tools;  Iron Age after 1000 B.C.- iron into tools.  Increased wealth led to the development of great cities in the river valleys of Egypt, China, India, and Mesopotamia.  Civilization Emerges:  Cultures (ways of life) became more complex and civilizations developed.  Civilizations are complex cultures with the 6 basic characteristics: (1) Cities; (2) Government;(3) Religion; (4) Social Structure;(5) Writing and; (6) Art.

 Groups 1 & 3: Make a list of the ways that human behavior changed in the Neolithic Age that distinguished them from earlier ages.  Groups 2 & 4: Make a list of the areas where civilizations developed during the Neolithic Revolution. Explain why.

PROBLEM 1. CIVILIZATION “Civilization,” National Geographic (January 21, 2011). https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/civilization/ What are the key characteristics of civilizations? 1. What conditions allowed for civilizations to develop? 2. What are some of the reasons why civilizations have failed? Give one example to illustrate your point. 3.

 Students will be able to:  Explain the geography of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt and why the civilizations existed where they did;  Describe life in Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt;  Describe the three kingdoms of Ancient Egypt;  Explain what happened to Egypt after the fall of the “new kingdom”;  Describe the rise to power of the “new” civilizations of the Indo-Europeans, the Phoenicians, Israelites, Assyrians, and Persians;  Describe the social life and the achievements of the “new” civilizations;  Explain the rise to power of the Indus Civilization and its achievements;  Explain how the Aryans influenced the Indus Civilization;  Explain the basic beliefs of the Hindu religion and the teachings of Buddhism;  Describe life and the major achievements of the Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han Dynasties in China; and  Explain the basic principles of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism.

 Mesopotamia- birthplace of civilization, located between the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys at the eastern end of the Fertile Crescent (the fertile arc from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf). Little rain but soil was fertile due to silt from the periodic flooding the rivers.  Sumerian Civilization:  Religion- polytheistic- over 300 gods.  Sumerian City-States- walled cities like Eridu, Ur, and Uruk.  Political Rulers- theocracy (government ruled by religious) priests and priestesses; in Sumer also Kings.  Economy- farming but trade and industry existed in Sumer but trade and industry also developed. The invention of wheels in 3,000 B.C. made transportation easier.  Social Structure- nobles, commoners (90% farmers), and slaves. It was a patriarchal (male-dominated) society.  Writing- around 3000 B.C.- developed a cuneiform system of writing (reed stylus made wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets). Select young boys were trained to be scribes (became leaders).  Technology- wagon wheel, potter’s wheel, sundial, metal works, and advances in math, astronomy, & geometry.  Other Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia: Akkad & Babylon (Hammurabi’s Code: “an eye for an eye.”)

 Egyptian Civilization- along the Nile River (world’s longest river); annual flooding (“miracle”) left silt that fertilized the river valley.  Religion- polytheistic with a number of gods associated with heavenly bodies and natural forces. The sun god “Re” was the most important. Osiris became a symbol of the afterlife.  Mummification preserved the physical body.  Political- absolute king was called a pharaoh and was divine.  Egypt’s three periods:  (1) Old Kingdom- King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom (2700 B.C. to 2200 B.C.) of prosperity and splendor. This is when they built the pyramids (largest at Giza). They also created the Great Sphinx (body of a lion with a human head) at Giza.  (2) Middle Kingdom- period of expansion and strength with fortresses to protect the frontier (2055B.C. to 1650 B.C.) In 1650 B.C. the Hyksos from western Asia conquered Egypt.  (3) New Kingdom- massive wealth came to Egypt and pharaohs built many temples. (1550 B.C. to 1070 B.C.)  Pharaoh Akhenaten- worship of the sun disk god “Aten.” After his death, the boy Pharaoh Tutankhamen, restored the old gods.  Pharaoh Ramses II- conquered new lands.  After 1070 B.C. Egypt was ruled by various other groups for a thousand years: Libyans, Nubians, Persians, & Macedonians (led by Alexander the Great).  First century B.C.- Egypt ended up a province of Rome.

 Life in Ancient Egypt was highly structured.  Social structure- small upper class (pharaoh and nobles), large lower class of peasants and a small middle class.  Egyptian goods- well-built and beautiful stone dishes, wooden furniture, painted boxes, gold, silver, and copper tools and containers, paper and rope made of papyrus, and linen clothing.  Arranged monogamous marriages (girls around 12 and boys at 14). A man could take another wife if his first was childless.  Gender roles- husband was the master but wives were respected (in charge of the household and education but restricted from many public offices).  Writing- hieroglyphics (“priest-carvings” or “sacred writings”), often found on temple walls and in tombs. Hieratic script- used for business, record keeping, and the general needs of daily life. Early writing- in stone but later writing on rolls of papyrus.  Discipline- the Egyptians were strict with their children and discipline included beatings.  Art- artists and sculptors were expected to follow particular formulas in style.  Science- advances in mathematics, anatomy, medicine, embalming the dead, and 365-day calendar.

 Groups A & C: Make a list of the similarities between the Mesopotamian civilization and the Ancient Egyptian civilization.  Groups B & D: Make a list of the differences between the Mesopotamian civilization and the Ancient Egyptian civilization.

 Indo-Europeans: nomadic group from the steppe region in Southwest Asia- in 2000 B.C. spread into Europe, India, Asia.  Phoenicians:  Area near Palestine that developed a trade empire: purple dye, glass, lumber, and ships and were expert sailors.Created a 22 letter alphabet that was adopted by the Greeks, Romans, and us.  Israelites:  Minor group- religion influenced Christianity and Islam. History found in the Torah. Descendants of patriarch Abraham and their ancestors migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan and life based on grazing of animals.  Led out of slavery by Moses, Israelites moved to Canaan and King David came to power, making Jerusalem the capital. His son, King Solomon, known for his wisdom,expanded trade and built a temple in Jerusalem.  Judaism- monotheistic religion (one God) and based on the Ten Commandments and God’s covenant to protect the Jews. Jews would not accept the gods of neighbors,creating early feelings of hostility towards them.  Assyrians:  Empire in Mesopotamia, Iran, Asia Minor, Syria, Israel, and Egypt by 700 B.C. known for its communication system (series of posts with horse riders).  Persians:  In 539 B.C. the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar fell to the Persian Empire. The Persians were a nomadic Indo- European group that eventually settled in Iran and stretched from Asia Minor to India. Monotheistic Persian religion was called Zoroastrianism, considered the “true religion” & based on Prophet Zoroaster.

 Indus Civilization- 3000 B.C. to 1500 B.C. civilization in Indus River Valley with people called Dravidians.  Two important cities- Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, each with 35,000 people and buildings of mud bricks, courtyards, & sewage systems.  Political rulers- rajas (princes) were considered divine and wielded absolute power  Economy- farming with irrigation systems on the Ganges River, but trade was also important.  Aryans (Indo-European warrior nomadic group) changed the Indus people and introduced Sanskrit writing.  Socially- extended families (dominated by eldest male) lived together. Arranged marriages and girls’ parents paid dowries to husbands. Men took second wives if the first was childless. Upon the death of their husbands, women were expected to throw themselves onto a large fire and burn alive along with his corpse in the ritual of suttee.  Social class structure- four Varnas (social groups) from highest to lowest: (1) Brahmins (priests), (2) Kshatriyas (warriors), (3) Vaisyas (merchant or farmer commoners), and (4) Sundras (peasants or servants).  Religions of India-  Hinduism- originating with the Aryans, Hindus believed in a single force of reality in the universe, called Brahman. People would try to know this ultimate reality and merge with it upon death. Yoga and meditation were used so people could try to unite with Brahman. Hinduism came to have a number of human-like gods: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer). Believed in reincarnation (rebirth in a different form) and karma (force generated based on a person’s actions in life determined how they would be reborn).  Buddhism- founded by Siddhartha Gautama (known as “Buddha” or “Enlightened One”), who came from the Himalayan foothills (Nepal). Buddhism- people struggle to lead a simple lives and find wisdom in order to achieve nirvana (ultimate reality) based on deeds in life. Many consider Buddhism a philosophy- Buddha was not to be worshipped.

 Groups 1 & 3: List the most notable achievement for each of the following civilizations.  1. Phoenician  2. Israelite  3. Assyrian  4. Persian  5. Indus  Groups 2 & 4: List the similarities between Hinduism and Buddhism. Explain whether or not the two are compatible.

 Ancient Chinese Civilization- along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers under the Xia Dynasty from 2000 B.C. to 1750 B.C. and later the Shang Dynasty from 1750 B.C. to 1045 B.C.  Shang Dynasty- 1750 B.C. farming civilization, obsessed with war, and known for mastery of bronze casting.  Powerful kings, aristocracy, huge city walls for protection, royal palaces, and elaborate tombs. Majority were farming peasants.  Priests interpreted “oracle bone” cracks. They believed in an afterlife and engaged in “ancestor worship.”  Zhou Dynasty- conquered the Shang Dynasty in 1045 B.C. and ruled until 256 B.C. but continued many of the practices of the Shang Dynasty.  The Zhou Dynasty claimed it had the “Mandate of Heaven,” that nature was kept in order through the king. The king, in turn, had to be kind to his people and rule according to the “proper way” called the Dao. A famine or earthquake, for example, gave the people the “right of revolution.”  After 800-years- Zhou Dynasty ended after a bloody civil war and period of “warring states” (iron weapons & crossbows).  System similar to European feudalism in land ownership, use, and protection. The family (led by elder male) was sacred.  Achievements: irrigation, steel plows, silk trade, and written Chinese language (pictograph where symbols represented words).  Confucianism- Confucius, known as the first teacher, was a political and ethical philosopher (not spiritual) who recorded his sayings in the Analects.Confucius said there was order in the universe when humans acted in harmony with the universe and one another. People were expected to work hard, improve life, practice the “way,” and subordinate their own desires for the good of the family and community.  Daoism- system of ideas based on the teachings of Laozi (the “Old Master”). The basic ideas were straightforward but the best way to follow the will of Heaven is through inaction, not interfering with the natural order.  Legalism- philosophy that humans were evil by nature and needed a strong ruler, harsh laws, and punishments.

 Qin Dynasty- under Qin Shihuangdi China was united until his death in 210 B.C., and civil war resumed.  Qin set a single monetary system, legalism, a system of roads, a series of canals, and a great army that expanded China.  His burial tomb included a vast terra-cotta army of more than 6,000 soldiers.  Great Wall of China- concerned with raiding nomads, Qin Dynasty built the original segments of Great Wall of China for defense.  Anyone who opposed the regime was executed and it censored speech, had harsh taxes, and forced labor.  Politically- was divided into three parts: civil, military, & censorate (inspectors who oversaw government).  Han Dynasty- in 202 B.C. Liu Pang (peasant origins) took control of China.  Han emperor abolished the Qin Dynasty’s harsh policies and legalism and instead adopted Confucian principles.  Population increased to 60-million and government jobs were given based on merit. Han emperors expanded China.  Life was not easy for peasant farmers, who had little land and completed one month per year of forced labor.  Technology- improvements in textile manufacturing, water and windmills for grinding grain, and iron casting. Iron casting led to the development of steel. Paper was developed and ships with rudders led to increased trade.  Eventually peasants rebelled against wealthy nobles who demanded peasant labor. By 220 A.D. the empire was destroyed and the next dynasty would not rise for more than 400-years.

 Groups A & B: List the most notable achievement for each of the following Chinese Dynasties. Then explain which was the most successful dynasty and why.  1. Shang  2. Zhou  3. Qin  4. Han  Groups C & D: List the differences between the following philosophical beliefs and ideas. Then explain which made the most sense given the Chinese values of discipline, obedience, and family and why.  1. Confucianism  2. Daoism  3. Legalism

PROBLEM 2. CREATION STORIES “Enûma elish,” Babylonian Creation Story. Book of Genesis, Israelite Creation Story. What similarities exist between the Babylonian and Israelite creation stories? 1. What differences exist between the Babylonian and Israelite creation stories? 2.

 Students will be able to:  Explain how the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations influenced the development of Greek culture;  Describe what the polis was and its importance to Greek life;  Explain why independent city-states and rivalry developed in the Greek world;  Describe the relationship between Athens and Sparta;  Describe the violent history between the Greeks and Persians;  Explain the evolution of participation in government by Greek men;  List the key Greek historians, playwrights, philosophers, and scientists and their major achievements; and  Describe the Macedonian invasion and expansion of Greek culture under Alexander the Great.

 Greek Geography:  A mountainous peninsula & 6,000 islands-Greeks became seafarers who fiercely defended their city- states.  Minoans- centered on Crete, the Minoan Civilization flourished from 2700 B.C. to 1450 B.C.  Although not a Greek civilization, the Minoans influenced the Greeks through traded and buildings.  1450 B.C. some scholars believe a tidal wave caused a volcanic eruption on the Island of Thera destroying the Minoans. Other scholars argue that Mycenaeans invaded Crete and destroyed the Minoans.  Mycenaeans- civilization from mainland Greece that flourished from 1600 B.C. to 1100 B.C.  Mycenaean Greeks were Indo-European warriors that established powerful monarchies, built fortresses, and gigantic stone walls. The most famous mythical battle in Greek history put the Mycenaean Greeks under Agamemnon against the Trojans during the Trojan War (written by Homer in his Iliad).  The Mycenaean Greeks maintained a loose alliance of independent states but frequently fought wars against neighbors. They also had vast trade networks all over the Mediterranean world.  1100 B.C. to 750 B.C. was a Dark Age (few written records) but Mycenaeans spread around the Mediterranean.  Adopted the Phoenician alphabet and Homer wrote his epic poems (long poems telling the story of a great hero), the Iliad and the Odyssey,based on stories passed down from generation to generation.

 By 750 B.C., the polis (city-state or local community) became the central focus of Greek life.  Government provided a place to protect during an attack called an acropolis. Below was a place to gather, called an agora. City-states varied but the polis gave a united identity & shared common goals.  3 groups of people- citizens with political rights (adult males), citizens without political rights (women and children), and non-citizens (agricultural laborers, slaves, and resident aliens).  City-state rivalries developed. Greeks colonized the Mediterranean world between 750 B.C. and 550 B.C.: Italy, France, Spain, and North Africa, Thrace on the Black Sea, Hellespont, Bosporus, and Byzantium (later Constantinople). The Greeks spread cultural, political ideas, trade, and a wealthy merchant class formed.  Tyrants (wealthy merchants) gained power from aristocrats. Once in power the tyrants kept power with hired soldiers. They helped the poor with public works projects and built markets, temples, & walls.  Sparta & Athens:  Sparta- rigid and strict conquering civilization that enslaved the captured (helots). Spartan men remained in the military until age 60. Because men were away a lot, women gained a degree of independence. Sparta was a strict military state run by 2 kings and an elected council of 28 citizens.  Athens- civilization on the mainland ruled by a king with upper class aristocrats.After civil war, Athens developed a democratic government in the form of a council of 500 that supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury, and proposed laws.

 Groups 1 & 3: Brainstorm and list the reasons why the Ancient Greeks placed such a strong influence on rivalry such as: Mycenaean Greeks v. Troy and Athens v. Sparta. Can we trust the works of Homer as historical sources?  Groups 2 & 4: Brainstorm and list the ways that the Greek concept of the polis is still relevant in the world today.

 In 490 B.C., the Athenians and Persians began fighting a series of wars.  Persians landed in Marathon (26 miles from Athens) and the Greeks won the battle. A runner named Pheidippides ran the 26-miles to Athens to announce the Athenian victory over Persia and then died.  Xerxes vowed revenge and led a massive Persian invasion force of 180,000 troops and thousands of warships. Athenians, Spartans, and other Greeks united to defeat the Persian invaders.  Greeks formed an alliance known as the Delian League and pushed back Persians from Greek lands.  Athenian Empire expanded under Pericles, in what historians call Classical Athenian or Classical Greek History. Athens- center of Greek culture and made great strides in art, architecture, & philosophy.  Under Pericles, direct democracy (participation by every male), an assembly that met every 10-days on the east side of the Acropolis to pass all laws, elected public officials.  System of ostracism to protect against ambition. A petition of 6,000 led to banishment for 10-years.  Economy based on farming and trade. Grapes and olives were exported.  Women could take part in religious festivals but were otherwise excluded from public life.  Great Peloponnesian War- Athens vs. Sparta. Defeat of Athens ended the Classical Greek period.

 Twelve important gods who lived at Mt. Olympus; including: Zeus (chief god); Athena (goddess of wisdom); Apollo (god of the sun and poetry); Ares (god of war); Aphrodite (goddess of love); and Poseidon (god of the seas) (Hades was the god of the underworld).  Rituals, festivals, and oracles (interpreted to guide decisions) (like the Oracle at Delphi).  Greek Drama- outdoor theaters to view Greek Comedies (puns and satire) and Greek Tragedies dealt with universal themes (good v. evil, rights, divine, & humans). Euripides & Sophocles were Greek playwrights (Sophocles- Oedipus Rex).  Greek Historians- Herodotus is the “father of history.” Thucydides is the “greatest historian of the ancient world.”  Philosophy refers to the organized system of thought and often concerned the nature and the universe.  Pythagoras believed the universe could be found in numbers & music. Sophists were traveling teachers who sold services to young men.  Socrates was critical of the Sophists, believed education was in questioning and reason (Socratic Method), & urged moral lives.  Plato (Socrates’ student), focused on the question “how do we know what is real and what isn’t? Distrusted masses and favored a republic.  Aristotle (Plato’s student) believed that happiness came from living virtuous lives (virtue was the mid-point of extremes); he pushed for “moderation in all things” and believed people learned through observation and classification.  In 338 B.C. Macedonian king Philip II conquered Greece. After his assassination, his son Alexander the Great (20) took over. Alexander united the Greeks and Macedonians in an attack of the Persian Empire,winning back Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the rest of Persia. He then went east into Pakistan and India. Finally, Alexander returned home, where he died at age 32 in 323 B.C.  Greek Scientists- Euclid- plane geometry and Archimedes- geometry of spheres and cylinders and established value of pi.  Four Hellenistic (Greek-like) kingdoms resulted in Macedonia, Syria, Pergamum, and Egypt. All were later conquered by Rome.

 Group A: List the reasons why other groups, such as the Macedonians, might have wanted to be like the Greeks. What values did others admire about the Greeks?  Group B: Explain the Greek system of democracy (who did it include?) and ostracism (how did it work?). Should the U.S. have a system of ostracism and how could it work?  Group C: List as many Greek gods as you can and what they controlled. Then decide which three were probably the most important to the Greeks and why.  Group D: List the main beliefs of the following and explain which made the most important contribution to Greek civilization. Whose beliefs made the most important contribution to life today, what were they, and why were they so important?  1. Socrates  2. Plato  3. Aristotle

PROBLEM 3. GREEK CONTRIBUTIONS Research the important contributions that the Greeks made to modern Western Civilization. Come to an agreement within your group as to the top 3 contributions and why they were so important. Finally, you will present your top 3 contributions to the class.

 Students will be able to:  Describe the founding of Rome and the establishment of the Roman Monarchy;  Explain how Rome changed from a Monarchy to a Republic;  Explain what a republic is and how citizens vote and elect representatives in republican-style governments;  Describe the achievements made by the Roman Republic;  Explain how Rome expanded and how expansion was both good and bad for Rome;  Explain how class conflicts and civil war divided Rome and led to the establishment of an imperial government;  Explain how Julius Caesar gained power and how he was assassinated;  Explain how Augustus Caesar changed Rome to an Empire and how life changed for Romans as a result;  Describe life in Rome and its achievements made in terms of culture, education, art, architecture, and literature;  Describe the role of Christianity in Rome and how it eventually gained acceptance;  Explain the problems faced by the Western Roman Empire and the reasons for its collapse; and  List and explain the ten reasons for the fall of Rome and how those reasons were interrelated.

 From 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C., an Indo-European group called the Latins, moved onto the Italian peninsula.  Herders and farmers, and olive and grape farmers who spread an alphabet, art, and culture through sculpture, architecture, and literature.  In 650 B.C. the Etruscans (from Etruria) founded Rome and made the most significant contribution to Roman culture.  Romulus and Remus, two brothers were abandoned by an evil uncle in the Tiber River. A she-wolf found them, nursed them, and raised them. In 753 B.C., Romulus founded and became king of Rome (monarchy).  Business and trade, due to geography and access to the Mediterranean Sea. By the 6th Century B.C., all trade routes converged in Rome.  In 509 B.C. the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic (people vote for representatives in government).  Under the Roman Republican Constitution:  Executive- 2 consuls (also known as praetors), one civil and one military (1-year terms), elected by a group of aristocrats and wealthy.  Legislative (law-makers)- Senate, made up of wealthy aristocrats (Senators served for life), which advised and approved actions of Consuls.  In times of crisis, a dictator could hold absolute power for a term of 6-months.  Class Conflict Divided Rome:  Patricians– the hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes. The common people were known as the plebeians.  In the early Fifth Century, tensions became so bad that the plebeians threatened to break away from Rome and form a rival settlement.  To save Rome, the patricians granted plebeians some rights. In 471 B.C., they could elect tribunes within the Council of the Plebs. By 287 B.C. tribunes could veto measures they thought were unfair. Nevertheless, wealthy Romans continued to control Rome.  Roman Code Law- 450 B.C., the Twelve Tables set out important statutes (or laws). Rome developed a complex system of law with principles like: innocent until proven guilty, defending oneself in court, and a judge weighing the evidence.  Roman Republic expanded to encompass most lands adjacent (next to) the Mediterranean Sea. After a series of three Punic Wars with Carthage, Rome even gained land in Northern Africa and controlled Greece, Macedonia, and Pergamum.

 Expansion brought wealth but it was unequally distributed. The constitution failed with so much territory.  Problems with conquered lands:  New land went to the wealthy who organized enormous sheep and cattle herding plantations called latifundia.  The owners of latifundia enjoyed great economies of scale, used slave labor, and drove others out of business.  Brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus used the Council of the Plebs to redistribute land to the poor. Many wealthy Senators were furious and both brothers were soon assassinated. Civil war seemed likely.  Two generals, Gaius Marius (favored reform) and Lucius Cornelius Sulla (sided with rich), tried to save Rome.  Marius became consul, created a new army recruitment system, and put power in the hands of generals but Marius died and Sulla took over. Sulla did not address Rome’s most serious social problems and engaged in a reign of terror, killing all political opponents. He then eliminated assemblies and put all power in the hands of the Senate.  50-years of civil war ensued.  Crassus (richest man in Rome), Pompey (general who conquered Hispania), and Julius Caesar (general who conquered Gaul). In the 50s B.C., Caesar led an army that conquered Gaul making him very popular.  In 49 B.C., after Crassus died in battle, the Senate favored Pompey because they feared Caesar’s popularity.  Nevertheless, Caesar marched his army across the Rubicon River into to Rome and soon after he named himself dictator for life. A civil war broke out and Caesar won.  Julius Caesar stepped into the chaos and began the process of changing the Republic into a centralized government.

 Caesar was the nephew of Marius and he favored social reform.  He centralized all military and political functions under his control; confiscated property from the wealthy and gave it to veterans of his army and other supporters; launched large scale building projects to provide employment for the poor; and extended Roman citizenship to conquered people.  His reforms alienated the rich who called him a tyrant and assassinated him in 44 B.C. (on the Ides of March).It was too late to save the republic; civil war raged and Octavian became the new leader of Rome.  After the death of Caesar, Octavian (the protégé, heir, and grandnephew of Julius Caesar) and Marc Antony fought for power. Marc Antony allied himself with Cleopatra VII of Egypt but lost at the Battle of Actium to Octavian in 31 B.C.  In 27 B.C., the Senate gave Octavian the title “Augustus” (suggesting a semi-divine nature). He ruled unopposed for 45 years in “a monarchy disguised as a republic.” He accumulated vast power, reorganized the military, created a new standing army, and stabilized the land after years of civil war.  The Empire rose and Augustus Caesar became the first Emperor of Rome. Augusts maintained a standing army of 28 legions (5,000 male citizens each) and auxiliary forces of 130,000 (subject people could be auxiliary forces).  After Augustus, the Roman Empire continued to grow and surrounded the Mediterranean Sea. Romans called the Mediterranean mare nostrum (“our sea”). Roman soldiers, diplomats, and merchants spread and trade flourished.  Emperors named their successors. The next four came from his family: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, & Nero.  After Nero a Civil War broke out. The next five emperors were considered “good emperors” and ruled during the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.

 Group 1: List the origins of the following:  1. The Latins  2. The Etruscans  3. The Roman monarchy  Group 2: Describe what a republic is and then write out the makeup of the executive and legislative branches under the Roman Republic.  Group 3: List the major disagreements that existed between the plebeians and patricians and the goals of each group in Rome.  Group 4: List the accomplishments of Julius Caesar and describe how he took power in Rome.

 Art & Architecture- Roman artists aimed for slightly more realistic statues. They used Greek architectural forms such as colonnades, arches, vaults, and domes. They use massive amounts of concrete and improved engineering of roads, bridges, & aqueducts.  Literature- Virgil wrote the epic poem, the Aeneid, Horace was the most famous poet, and Livy wrote The Early History of Rome in 142-volumes.  Family- headed by paterfamilias (dominant male), each son and his wife lived with his father.  Gender- father (or someone he appointed) taught boys to read, write, morals, law, and military training by the age of 16 (adulthood). Women always needed a male “guardian.” Fathers arranged marriages for daughters (between ages of 12- 14). Men typically married when older.  Slavery- Romans heavily relied on slavery. Slaves farmed, attended to the house, and did almost any job.  Living Conditions- City of Rome was the center of life with temples, markets, baths, theaters, government buildings, amphitheaters. It was busy, crowded, loud, and dirty. The rich lived well and the poor lived in inadequate, small, and uncomfortable apartments.  Roman Religion- festivals were held honoring the many Roman gods and goddesses (including Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars). Romans thought success required the favor of gods but tolerated other religions.  Rise of Christianity- Greco-Roman religions were incompatible with basic principles of Christianity, which favored peace. Also, Christians refused to worship the other Roman gods; this was considered this treason and punishable by death (many found themselves in the gladiatorial arenas). By the Third Century, Christianity began to grow in popularity because: 1. it offered salvation; 2. it was similar to other religions; and 3. followers belonged to a community and spiritually was equal for all.  In 313, Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and issued the Edict of Milan, which officially tolerated Christianity.  In 380, Emperor Theodosius the Great, Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire.

 Reasons for the Fall of Rome:  1. Rome grew too large to manage (its borders were hard to hold);  2. Increasing invasions by barbarians (consistent invasions by Sassanid, Persians, and Germanic tribes);  3. Lack of a unified Roman Army (because of the size, Rome had to begin hiring barbarians who were not reliable or loyal);  4. Financial crisis (with little money to pay soldiers, it paid soldiers in land, which chipped away at Roman territory);  5. Ineffective and corrupt emperors (from 235-284 there were 22 different emperors);  6. Moral and cultural decay (people lost the love of being Roman and being civilized);  7. Disease (killed many and caused a shortage of workers, food, trade, and money);  8. Class conflicts (rich versus poor were constant as a result of the structure of Roman society);  9. Rise of Christianity (the concept of peace and brotherly love was incompatible with war); and  10. Division of the Empire into East and West (Diocletian officially split the empire to try and save it but instead it weakened. The East, centered at Constantinople (previously named Byzantium) remained strong while the West declined and eventually fell).  Barbarian Invasions:  As the Western Roman Empire grew weaker, it faced an increased barbarian migrations, invasions, and pillagings.  Huns- came from Asia (led by Attila);  Visigoths- originally came from Germany as allies, revolted in 378 A.D. at Adrianople (wanted to be civilized but didn’t know how);  Vandals- came from southern Spain and Africa and in 455 A.D. sacked Rome.  Finally, in 476 A.D., the last Roman emperor (a boy emperor) Romulus Augustulus was sent into exile by the Germanic army commander Odoacer (who named himself king). The Western Roman Empire finally fell. The Eastern Empire continued on as strong for approximately 1,000 more years. The West soon fell into the Dark Ages.

 Groups A & C: List the reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Which were the three most important causes for the fall of Rome? How were they related to one another?  Group B: List the artistic, cultural, and architectural achievements made by the Roman Empire. Which were the three most important achievements and why?  Group D: List the barbarian groups that invaded Rome and where they originated. Describe how the Western Roman Empire finally fell in 476 A.D.

PROBLEM 4. ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS Research the important contributions that the Romans made to modern Western Civilization. Come to an agreement within your group as to the top 3 contributions and why they were so important. Finally, you will present your top 3 contributions to the class.

 Students will be able to:  Describe how dangerous life was in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476;  Define the “Middle Ages” and explain how historians divide the Middle Ages;  Explain why many people consider the Early Middle Ages to be the “Dark Ages”;  Explain how the Merovingian Dynasty rose to power and then fell;  Explain how the Carolingian Dynasty united with the Church and gained power;  Explain the idea of “divine right of kings” and why that was important in the Middle Ages;  Explain how Charlemagne and the Church worked together to maintain power;  Explain how the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy nor Roman;  Explain why feudalism was needed and why it was a useful relationship between lords and peasants during the Middle Ages;  Demonstrate a mastery of the feudal relationship that dominated Europe during the Middle Ages; and  Describe the importance and functions of the Medieval Church.

 As the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire survived until it was taken over by Ottoman Turks (Muslims) in 1453. Western Europe descended into the Middle Ages-time between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire (476-1453).  The Middle Ages are divided into three periods:  Early Middle Ages 476-1000;  High Middle Ages 1000-1347; and  Late Middle Ages 1347-1492.  Early Middle Ages- (476-1000) also called the “Dark Ages” (darkness (barbarians) overwhelmed the light (Romans).  Influence of barbarians increased as Roman Emperors granted barbarian mercenaries land within the Roman Empire in return for military service. It chipped away at Rome and these barbarians eventually took over.  Waves of barbarians migrated into areas given up by the Romans- categorized by language and little else:  Celtic Tribes: Gauls, Britons;  Germanic Tribes: Goths, Franks, Vandals, Saxons; and  Slavic Tribes: Buglers, Wends.  Merovingian Dynasty:  Merovingian Dynasty originally a barbarian group in Gaul ruled for 300 years as the first dynasty after the fall of Rome.  481 A.D.- Merovingian Dynasty united Frankish tribes after Clovis I converted to Christianity, winning support of the Church.  Clovis enforced Salic Law, assigning a specific financial value, or wergild, to everyone and everything. The ordeal was used to determine guilt (cause harm to a person but it was presumed that an innocent person would not actually be harmed).  The Merovingian's built many monasteries, churches, and palaces and they spread Christianity throughout Europe.  Eventually dynasty declined as kings relaxed power to become figureheads and aristocrats gained power.

 Carolingian Dynasty:  In the Eighth Century the aristocrat, Charles “the Hammer” Martel (who defeated the Muslim Moors at the Battle of Tours, France in 732), rose to power in the Frankish kingdom.  Charles confiscated land given to the Church and began Church reforms to restore spirituality to priests. His son, Pepin the Short, continued Church reforms, and eventually removed the last Merovingian king.  What resulted was the Carolingian Dynasty, which vowed to protect the papacy (Pope) and establish the Pope and his bishops as “the makers of kings” or “the divine right of kings” (that kings get their power directly from God, making rebellion against a king a crime against God).  When Pepin died in 768, his son Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, took over and reigned from 768 to 814.  Charlemagne:  Charlemagne was a military general who restored the exiled Pope Leo III as the head of the Church.  In return, on Christmas Day in the year 800, Pope Leo placed a crown on Charlemagne’s head and named him the “Emperor of the Romans,” which secured the relationship between kings and the papacy.  Charlemagne became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a dynasty that lasted more than 700 years as a loose alliance of Christian states in modern Germany, Poland & Hungary.  Charlemagne imposed order through the Church and state,ordered the standardization of Latin, reformed the clergy, and established a new form of handwriting. Ironically, Charlemagne was probably illiterate.  After Charlemagne’s death Europe became politically unstable; fighting and wars were a constant danger. In the end, a system called feudalism was developed as a new social and political order.

 Groups 1 & 3: Brainstorm and list the characteristics of life during the Early Middle Ages during the Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties. Did the rise of Charlemagne restore the Western Roman Empire?  Groups 2 & 4: List the ways that Clovis I and Charlemagne gained power. Was there separation of church and state during the Early Middle Ages? Explain.

 Rise of Feudalism:  Middle Ages were dangerous and war was a constant concern due to invasions for land, food, and power. After Charlemagne, the Carolingians failed to provide effective means of defending against the Magyars (in Central Europe), Muslims (in Southern Europe), Vikings (in Britain and Northern Europe), etc.  Feudalism was an agreement between lords and peasants (called “serfs”) whereby lords gave the serfs protection in times of danger and land to farm. In exchange, serfs gave lords labor and a portion of crops.  Serfs were not slaves, but once they entered into the feudal contract, they were tied to the land. If another lord inherited the manor, he would also inherit all of the serfs and had to honor the previous lord’s obligations.  Feudalism varied from place to place: there really was no single “feudal system.”  Feudalism- political and economic system in which lords and vassals provided each other with certain obligations. It worked because of mutual obligations and cooperation between serfs & nobles.  Result of Feudalism:  Lords- a hereditary class of nobles who lived off of the agricultural surplus that they received from serfs. Only by selling the surplus could lords get the resources needed for control military, political, and legal affairs.  Serfs- class of free peasants who sought protection from a lord. Serfs had the right to work certain lands, they had to perform labor services and pay rents in kind or a (portion of their harvest) to the lord.  Male serfs typically worked three days a week for their lord, with extra services during planting and harvesting times; and  Female serfs churned butter, spun thread, and sewed clothes for their lord and his family.  Lords ran self-sufficient manors- administering the government,police force, and courts.

 Role of the Church in Medieval Europe:  Middle Ages were a time of increased religiosity in Europe. With disease, warfare, and poverty for most people, heaven was the ultimate reward for the difficulties suffered during this lifetime.  Church developed a system of organizing territory into parishes overseen by priests. Parishes were grouped together into diocese overseen by bishops.  The Church got its power from the belief that Jesus gave the “keys to the kingdom of heaven” to his chief disciple, Peter, who established the Church as the first pope, or head of the Catholic Church.  Monastic Life:  A monk is a man who separates himself from society to dedicate his life to God. The practice of living like a monk is known as monasticism.  Monks followed strict rules established by Benedict of Nursia (St. Benedict) which divided a monk’s day between prayer (at least seven times a day) and physical labor; idleness is the “enemy of the soul.”  Each monastery (place where many monks live together in a communal life) was led by an abbot.  Monks copied books, ran schools and libraries, taught peasants skills, and served as missionaries (spreading Christianity).  Females could become nuns and lived in convents headed by an abbess.

 Groups A & C: Graphically show the hierarchy of the feudal system. Then list what serfs gave to lords under the feudal contract and list what lords gave to the serfs under the feudal contract.  Groups B & D: Graphically show the hierarchy of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. Then brainstorm and list the types duties of the clergy during the Middle Ages.

PROBLEM 5. BENEDICTINE RULES Benedictine Rules, Chapter 5, “On Obedience” & Chapter 6, “On Silence.” http://www.osb.org/rb/text/rbejms3.html#5 What does the selection say about being obedient? 1. What does the selection say about silence? 2. Would you be able to lead a life according to these principles? 3.

 Students will be able to:  Explain why castles were constructed in the Middle Ages and explain their purposes;  Describe the key architectural components of castles and explain how to sack a castle;  Describe the achievements of Justinian in the Eastern Roman Empire;  Explain what the Byzantine Empire was, where it was located, and what life was like in Constantinople;  Describe some of the achievements of the High Middle Ages;  Explain who knights were, what the Code of Chivalry was, and what rules knights were supposed to live by;  Explain the Pope’s attempts to curb mischief by bored knights;  Explain the causes of the Crusades and the Pope’s goals;  Summarize the achievements and failures of the Crusades; and  Explain the long lasting results from the Crusades and contact with the Middle East to European society.

 Castles were defensive fortresses that protected the inhabitants of an area during times of attack.  Often only wealthy nobles (lords and knights) had the means to construct such large structures. They were also vassals of the king and obligated to administer their fief, or lands that the king (chief feudal lord) had granted them. Lords, in turn, owed protection and loyalty to the king when called upon.  Castles were made up of:  Defensive curtain walls (inner curtain wall and outer curtain wall);  Fortified entryways with drawbridges, moats, gatehouses, portcullises, heavy doors with draw bars;  Defensive positions like arrow loops (or slits), murder holes, machicolations, merlons (top of wall) towers, and turrets; and  Innermost stronghold of the castle- keep. The great hall was often located within the keep and was the last line of defense.  Knights: trained fighters who were often part of the aristocracy and owned castles.  Church officials originally proposed a chivalric code to curb fighting within Christendom.  12th Century, dubbings included placing a sword on an altar and pledging to serve God, feudal lord, and the king.  Code of Chivalry evolved and knights adopted higher ethical standards, refined manners, & leadership.  Chivalric code- knights were to follow the ideals of order, piety, and Christian faith rather than wealth and power.  Knights were required to put women on pedestals and to treat them with dignity and respect.  During inactivity knights kept busy, avoided mischief, proved bravery, and combat skills in tournaments.  Aristocratic Women:  Most women were under the control of their fathers until marriage and then their husbands after they married.  Aristocratic women, however, often had great responsibilities in managing the officials, servants, food, supplies, and finances of a manor while their husbands were away.  Eleanor of Aquitaine is one example of a remarkable aristocratic woman.

PROBLEM 6. SONG OF ROLAND Song of Roland can be found at: https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/roland-ohag.asp Which were the three most important aspects of chivalry listed above? Explain why they were the most important for knights. 1. Why would using a poem or song have been necessary and helpful during the Middle Ages in order to communicate important rules? 2.

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