CHAPTER 9 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

1. CHAPTER 9INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

2. Learning Objectives • What is the psychometric approach to intelligence, and how have different psychometric theorists defined intelligence? • What are the traditional measures of intelligence, and what are some of the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches? • What are some alternatives to these traditional measures of intelligence?

3. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • Our understanding of intelligence has changed since the first intelligence tests were created in the late 19th century • There is still no single, universally accepted definition of intelligence • In the psychometric approach, intelligence is a trait or set of traits that characterize some people to a greater extent than others • Goal is to identify the traits precisely and to measure them so that differences among individuals can be described

4. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • In 1927, Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence • General mental ability (g) that contributes to performance on a variety of tasks • Special abilities (s) that are specific to particular tasks • Catell and Horn proposed two broad dimensions of intellect • Fluid intelligence, the ability to use the mind actively to solve novel problems • Crystallized intelligence, the use of knowledge acquired through school and life experiences

5. Caption: An item assessing fluid intelligence (similar to those in a test called the Raven Matrices Test). Which of the numbered pieces completes the design?

6. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • Current consensus emerging from research is that intelligence is a hierarchy that includes • At the top, a general ability factor that influences how well people do on a range of cognitive tasks • In the middle, a few broad dimensions, such as fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, memory capacity, and processing speed • At the bottom, specific abilities such as numerical reasoning, spatial discrimination, and word comprehension that also influence how well a person performs cognitive tasks that tap these specific abilities

7. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • Early version of IQ test was developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon • Permitted testers to describe a child’s mental age, the level of age-graded problems a child could solve • Binet’s test became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale • Allowed the calculation of intelligence quotient: a child’s mental age (MA) ÷ a child’s chronological age (CA) = IQ • An IQ of 100 indicates average intelligence

8. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is still used • Its test norms are based on the performance of a large representative sample of people, children 2 years of age through adults • Test norms: standards of normal performance expressed as average scores and the range of scores around the average

9. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • Wechsler’s intelligence tests – Wechsler Scales – are also in wide use • Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) – for children 3 to 8 • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) – for children 6 to 16 • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) – for adults • Wechsler tests yield a verbal IQ score and a performance IQ score

10. Defining Intelligence and Creativity • Scores on the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Scales form a normal distribution • Symmetrical bell-shaped spread around the average score of 100 • About 2/3 of people taking one of these tests score between 85 and 115 • Corresponds to the spread of scores within one standard deviation above and below the average score • Fewer than 3% have scores of 130 or above, which is used as one criterion of giftedness • Fewer than 3% have scores below 70, a cutoff used to define intellectual disability

11. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences • Gardner argues that there are at least 8 distinct intellectual abilities • Linguistic – language skills • Logical-mathematical – abstract thinking and problem-solving • Musical – acute sensitivity to sound patterns • Spatial – accurate perception

12. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences • 8 distinct intellectual abilities (continued) • Bodily-kinesthetic – skillful use of the body to create, perform, etc. • Interpersonal – social intelligence and skill, sensitivity to the motivations and moods of others • Intrapersonal – understanding of one’s own feelings and inner life • Naturalist – expertise in the natural world of plants and animals

13. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences • According to Gardner, each of the abilities is distinct • Savant syndrome is a circumstance in which an individual has exceptional ability in one area but otherwise is mentally retarded • Abilities may be musical, mathematical

14. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory • Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence – three components that jointly contribute to intelligent behavior 1) Practical or contextual component • Varies according to the sociocultural context in which it is displayed • Ability to adapt to the environment

15. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 2) Creative component includes • Response to novelty, which requires active and conscious information processing • Automization, or increased efficiency of information processing with practice 3) Analytic component • Information-processing skills that are assessed by traditional IQ tests

17. Caption: Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

18. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory • Sternberg expanded his triarchic theory of intelligence to include the theory of successful intelligence • People are intelligent “to the extent that they have the abilities needed to succeed in life, according to their own definition of success within their sociocultural context” (Sternberg, 2003, p. xvi) • These individuals are strong in all three areas – practical, creative, and analytical • Smart people optimize their strengths and minimize their weaknesses so that they can succeed

19. Creativity • Creativity is the ability to produce novel responses appropriate in context and valued by others • IQ scores measure convergent thinking, “converging” on the best answer • Creativity involves divergent thinking, or generating a variety of ideas or solutions when there is no single correct answer • Originality or uniqueness of the generated ideas • Number of different categories expressed by the ideas • Fluency of ideas • Ideational fluency – the sheer number of different ideas – is easy to score and most often used to assess creativity

20. Creativity • Sternberg’s confluence approach includes the following constituent components in creativity • Intellectual skills that constitute intelligence • Knowledge of the field • A thinking style that is open to new thinking • Personality characteristics such as calculated risk-taking and willingness to pursue and overcome obstacles • Motivation • An environment that is supportive of creative ideas

21. Learning Objectives • What methods have been used to assess infant intelligence, and how successful is each method? • To what extent is infant intelligence related to later intelligence? • Are IQ scores stable during childhood? What factors contribute to gains and losses in IQ scores? • What are the typical characteristics of creative children?

22. The Infant – Developmental Quotients • Bayley Scales of Infant Development – the most widely used infant test • Used for infants from 1 to 42 months • Motor scale – measures the infant’s ability to do such things as grasp a cube and throw a ball • Mental scale – measures adaptive behaviors such as reaching for an object • Behavior rating scale – measures behaviors such as goal-directedness, emotional regulation, social responsivity • The infant’s developmental quotient (DQ) summarizes how the infant performs in comparison with a large norm group of age-peer infants

23. Infant Intelligence and Later Intelligence • Scales such as the Bayley are useful in charting developmental progress, and in diagnosing neurological conditions and mental retardation • However, researchers find low or no correlations between infant DQ and child IQ • Researchers have found that later IQ can be predicted by • Measures of infant attention, such as speed of habituation and preference for novelty • Fast reaction time

25. How Stable Are IQ Scores During Childhood? • DQs donot predict later IQs • Beginning at age 4, there is a fairly strong relationship between early and later IQ • Many children show sizeable ups and downs in their IQ scores during childhood • Patterns of change differ considerably from child to child • Nevertheless, researchers conclude that within a group, children’s standings (high or low) in comparison with peers stay stable from one point to another during the childhood years

26. The Child – Causes of Gain and Loss • Children whose IQ scores fluctuate the most tend to live in unstable home environments • Noticeable drops in IQ with age often occur among children who live in poverty • Klineberg (1963) proposed a cumulative-deficit hypothesis explanation: impoverished environments inhibit intellectual growth, and these negative effects accumulate over time • Children whose IQ scores increase seem to have parents who foster achievement and whose parenting is neither too strict nor too lax

27. The Child – The Emergence of Creativity • The course of creativity during childhood • Preschoolers display fairly high levels of divergent thought • Creativity begins to decline at entry to kindergarten and first grade • Creativity declines even further by fourth grade (the “fourth-grade slump”) • Levels of divergent thinking rise again after age 12 • Variations are not as large as once believed • May reflect the demands of school and peers to conform to the group

28. The Child – The Emergence of Creativity • Researchers compared creative children of normal-range IQ with children who scored high in IQ but not in creativity • The creative children showed more freedom, originality, humor, aggression, and playfulness • Engage in more fantasy or pretend play, active imaginations, often invent new uses for objects or new roles for themselves, are open to new experiences and ideas, and have parents who tolerate their unconventional ideas • Unconventional responses are not always appreciated in the conventional classroom

29. The Child – The Emergence of Creativity • Research suggests that certain qualities of the home environment may influence children’s and adolescents’ creativity • Parents who tend to value nonconformity and independence, accept their children as they are, encourage their curiosity and playfulness, and grant them a good deal of freedom to explore new possibilities on their own • Early studies suggested that for some creative individuals, childhood adversity was a driving force behind their creativity

30. Learning Objectives • How well do IQ scores predict school achievement? • To what extent is IQ related to occupational success?

31. The Adolescent • Brain development in early adolescence enables formal operations, improved memory and information-processing skills, and better performance on IQ tests • IQ scores become more stable and predict IQ in middle age • In childhood and adolescence, IQ scores are a good predictor of school achievement • Better predictor of high school grades than of college grades

32. The Adolescent – Fostering Creativity • Adolescents often regain creativeness they had as preschoolers and can produce highly creative work • The developmental course of creativity is not as predictable or steady as measures of IQ • Seems to change in response to developmental needs and task demands • Adolescents report increased creative feelings • Curiosity, imagination, willingness to take calculated risks

33. The Adolescent – Fostering Creativity • Studies suggest that creative children and adolescents have • Talent • Motivation to develop their talents • Willingness to take risks • Ability to deal with ambiguity without becoming frustrated • Environments that recognize, value, and nurture creativity

34. Learning Objectives • How do IQ and mental abilities change with age? • What factors predict declines in intellectual abilities in older adults? • To what extent does wisdom exist in older adults? • How does creativity change throughout adulthood?

35. The Adult – IQ and Occupational Success • Research reveals strong relationships between IQ and factors that represent occupational success such as • Income • Occupational prestige • Complexity of work • Job performance ratings

36. The Adult – IQ and Health • Those with higher IQ scores tend to be healthier and live longer than those with lower scores • Common explanation is socioeconomic status • Better jobs provide resources for better healthcare • However, effective management of personal health requires abilities such as learning and problem-solving – a certain amount of intelligence

37. The Adult – Changes in IQ with Age • In Kaufman’s study (2001), • Cross-sectional data showed that IQs rise slightly until the mid-40s and then decline • Steepest declines begin around age 80 • Longitudinal data suggested that intellectual abilities decline with age • In both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal studies, verbal IQ changed little with age, at least until people reached their 80s • However, performance IQ peaked by ages 20-24 and then steadily declined

38. Caption: IQ scores by age, showing a slow decline starting about age 55

39. The Adult – Changes in IQ with Age • K. Warner Schaie (1996, 2005) tested adults aged 22-70 on five mental abilities • Verbal meaning • Spatial ability • Reasoning • Numerical ability • Word fluency • Sequential design used longitudinal and cross-sectional data

40. The Adult – Changes in IQ with Age • Findings from Schaie’s study • Cohort or generational effects on performance exist • Affected by amount and quality of education • Patterns of aging differ for different abilities • Fluid intelligence usually declines earlier and more steeply than crystallized intelligence • Starting in middle age, problem-solving may be impaired, but general knowledge and vocabulary are retained

41. Caption: Schematic rendering of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence over the lifespan

42. The Adult – Changes in IQ with Age • Findings from Schaie’s study (continued) • Declines in intellectual abilities are not universal • Among the 81-year-olds, only 30-40% had experienced significant decline in the previous 7 years • Few 81-year-olds maintained all five mental abilities, but almost all retained at least one ability and almost half retained four of five abilities • Summary: the range of differences in intellectual functioning among older adults is extremely large

43. The Adult – Predictors of Decline • Declines in intellectual performance in old age are related to the following factors • Poor health • Diseases and possibly the drugs used to treat them contribute to the terminal drop (a rapid decline in intellectual abilities within a few years of death) • Unstimulating lifestyle • Schaie found that the greatest intellectual declines were shown by elderly widows who had low social status, few activities, and dissatisfaction with their lives – live alone and seemed disengaged • Those who maintained or gained tended to have above-average SES, advanced education, intact marriages, intellectually capable spouses, and physically and mentally active lifestyles

44. The Adult – Potential for Wisdom • Definitions of wisdom • Baltes and colleagues: a constellation of rich factual knowledge about life combined with procedural knowledge such as strategies for giving advice and handling conflicts that permit someone to offer exceptional insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters • Sternberg: a wise person is someone who can combine successful intelligence with creativity to solve problems that require balancing multiple interests or perspectives

45. The Adult – Potential for Wisdom • A study to assess the relative contributions of age and specialized experience to wisdom revealed that • Wisdom was rare and not predicted by age • Expertise – life experiences – contributed to the development of wisdom • Wisdom seems to reflect a combination of intelligence, personality, and cognitive style • A supportive social environment in early adulthood was positively associated with wisdom 40 years later

46. The Adult – Creative Endeavors • Research reveals a typical pattern for creative careers to develop • Creative production typically increases steeply from the 20s to the late 30s or early 40s • Creative production gradually declines thereafter • Peak times of creative achievement vary from field to field • Productivity by scholars in the humanities peaks in the 60s and continues into old age • Scientists peak in their 40s and decline in their 70s • Productivity in the arts peaks in the 30s and 40s and declines steeply thereafter

47. The Adult – Creative Endeavors • Theories to explain changes in creative production over the adult years • People in their 30s and 40s have both the enthusiasm and the experience needed for creative achievement • Simonton (1999) suggested that creative activity involves two processes, but the two processes might not be manifested at the same time • Ideation – generating creative ideas • Elaboration – executing ideas to produce poems, paintings, or scientific publications • Simonton suggested that creative production tapers off because older creators have fewer potential ideas

48. Learning Objectives • What evidence shows genetic influence on IQ scores? • What other factors influence IQ scores?

49. Factors that Influence IQ Scores – Flynn Effect • Genetic and environmental factors interact to influence IQ • Flynn effect – during the 20th century, in all countries studied, average IQ scores increased by 3 to 4 points per decade • Full-scale IQ scores increased by 18 points over 50 years • Due to improved nutrition and living conditions, more focused attention from parents, and better education

50. Caption: Flynn effect