SELF

1. SELF

2. What is Self? • SELF • The conscious reflection of one’s own being or identify, as object separate from other or from the environment. • Self is the collections of beliefs that we hold about ourselves

3. Self have 2 distinct meaning: • Self as an object • Self as a process

4. SELF-ESTEEM • Judgement on our own worth & the associated feelings.

5. Measuring Self-esteem • Rosernberg Self-esteem Scale (1965) • Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (1971/1981).

6. Factors that can influences adolescent self-esteem • Pubertal development • Drug use • Academic • Gender differences • Feedback from peers and adults • SES and ethnic group

7. What is body image? • Body Image (BI) • an individual’s experience of his/her body. • Mental picture a person has of his/her body

8. Healthy Body Image & Self-Esteem • HBI – when a person’s mental picture of her body is accurate and her feelings, assessment and relationship towards her body are positive, confident and self-caring • Negative body image (clinical related problem) • Anorexia Nervosa • Bulimia Nervosa

9. Sex, Gender, and Individual Differences

10. What is Gender Identity Differences? • Awareness about the differences in gender • Awareness about gender role

11. Four theoretical approaches to gender identity • Biological explanations • Psychoanalytic explanation • Cognitive explanations – A. Gender constancy (Kohlberg) – B. Gender schema (Piaget) • Differential socialization explanation.

12. Maccoby & Jacklin’s Classic Meta-analytical (1974) Survey • Results on Maccoby & Jacklin’s “Differences” survey:- • Males more aggressive (Still very common, not universal) • Females have higher verbal ability (Magnitude appears decreasing but difference remains) • Males have higher visual-spatial ability (Still very consistent) • Males have higher mathematical ability (Still fairly consistent, but not universal and may be • decreasing). • Males more hyperactive • Females more nurturing • Females more prone to depression • Females more “field dependent” (as visual/spatial pattern) • Females more viable.

13. ANXIETY

14. What is anxiety? • Anxiety is state of tension • Anxiety is generally defined as a psychological emotional state or reaction • An anxiety state consists of unpleasant feelings of tension, apprehension, nervousness and worry and activation of the autonomic nervous system

15. 3 types of anxiety (Freud) • Reality anxiety • Neurotic anxiety • Moral anxiety

16. Two types of anxiety according to (Spielberg, 1956, 1988) • State anxiety • Trait Anxiety

17. Types of Anxiety (related to psychotic behavior) • Panic Disorder • Agoraphobia • Specific Phobias • Social Phobias • Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

18. Theories on Anxiety

19. Theories on Anxiety • Reformulated learned-helplessness theory -Martin Seligman (1975) • Seligman • human beings subjected to uncontrollabe negative events in life will eventually learn to be helpless and will become chronically depressed and heighten the anxiety level.

20. Anxiety from Big Five • Anxiety – comes under the Neuroticism domain • Anxiety, depression, nervousness, vulnerability, self-consciousness • Negative affectivity (Watson & Tellegen, 1985)

21. Studies on Neuroticism • People high in Neuroticism are lonelier (Stokes, 1985) • Less satisfied with interpersonal relationships in their lives (Atkinson & Volato, 1994) • People with depression and generalized (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985) • College students high in N report more stress symptoms and higher levels of homesickness (Matthews & Deary, 1998)

22. Instruments to measure anxiety • Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scales (MAS-Taylor, 1953), • Cattell’s Trait and State Anxiety Measures (Cattell and Scheier, 1963), • Affect Adjective Check List (AACL – Zuckerman and Lubin, 1965) • SCL-90 Symptom Check List (SCL-90 – Derogatis et al., 1973), • Profile of Mood States (POMS-McNair et al, 1971)

23. AGGRESSION

24. What is Aggression? • “Any type of behavior or action aiming at destroying, damaging, injuring people and people’s effort to run away from it” Baron & Byrne (1981)

25. Aggression • Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis • De individuation

26. Factors that Influence Aggression • Biological Groups. • Evolutionary theory. • Cultural Influences • Multicultural Perspectives • Frustration

27. Environmental Factors • Aggression as a Response to Aggression • Physical Pain • Heat • Arousal

28. Types of Aggression Hostile and Instrumental Aggression • Hostile (emotional) aggression • Instrumental aggression

29. Aggression & Violence • Aggression may lead to violence • Forsyth (1995) listed forms of aggression cum violence • Criminal violence • Sexual assault • Domestic violence • Family Violence • Adolescent violence • Collective violence

30. Theoretical Approach • Why aggression occurs? • Why violence occurs? • Three major lines of thoughts: • Psychoanalytic perspective • Instinct (Naluri) • Social learning perspective

31. Anxiety

32. Dimensions of Anxiety • Physiological • The sympathetic nervous system and other neurological and hormonal processes designed to help prepare your body to cope with threatening situations are activated. • Cognitive • When confronted with an anxiety-provoking situation, your ability to organize and recall information becomes impaired.

33. Dimensions of Anxiety • Behavioral • The presence of anxiety produces behavioral patterns characterized by awkwardness, defensiveness, and withdrawal. • Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) • The scale provides a measure of anxiety based on items assessing the three basic dimensions of anxiety.

34. Theoretical Viewpoints of Anxiety • Psychodynamic Viewpoint • Anxiety serves as a warning signal that unacceptable unconscious awareness. • Learning Viewpoint • Anxiety is a conditioned emotional response to a stimulus that signals the possibility of a danger to the individual. • Drive Viewpoint • Anxiety is a driving force that serves to increase the likelihood of a well-learned response being performed.

35. Theoretical Viewpoints of Anxiety • Evolutionary Viewpoint • Anxiety creates a state of emotional distress that serves to prompt a pattern of adaptation to a threat in order to maximize survival. • Integrating the Viewpoints • Anxiety is a signal of impending danger acquired by the process of conditioning that triggers action by the individual.

36. State and Trait Anxiety • State Anxiety. The type of transitory anxiety you normally experience when exposed to a threatening situation. • A temporary increase in the level of anxiety occurs in response to situations perceived as potentially dangerous. • Trait anxiety. A heightened level of anxiety characteristic of normal individuals who might be described as “anxious”. • The “anxious individual” perceives many situations as threatening and responds to them with increased anxiety.

37. State and Trait Anxiety • State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). An objective self-report measure assessing both state anxiety and trait anxiety. • Individuals can receive a score for both their current level of anxiety and their persistent level of anxiety.

38. The Assessment, Dynamics, and Overcoming of Test Anxiety • Assessment of Test Anxiety. • Anxious reactions associated with stimuli and situations specifically related to taking tests, as a result of tests being perceived as a threat to the individual’s ego, are measured. • Dynamics of High and Low Test-Anxiety Individuals. • Individuals high and low in test anxiety differ in their behavioral, evaluative, and cognitive responses to the testing situation. • Overcoming Test Anxiety. • Overcoming test anxiety involves replacing self-defeating thoughts with more rational thinking during the testing situation, overlearning the test material, learning to relax and associating the testing situation with rewards.

39. The Classification and Explanation of Anxiety Disiorders • Classification of Anxiety Disorders • Panic disorder • An acute, intense feeling of anxiety that can appear unexpectedly and serve to immobilize the individual. • Generalized Anxiety Disorder. • A chronic and pervasive sense of uneasiness that can make everyday functioning difficult, but not impossible.

40. The Classification and Explanation of Anxiety Disorders • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder • An obsession is the sense of anxiety that is created by the persistent occurrence of rather unacceptable thought that the individual fears may actually be executed. • A compulsion is the sense of anxiety created by an uncontrollable urge to carry out repeatedly by a particular course of action. • Phobic Disorder • The sense of anxiety created by the unrealistic and excessive fear of being isolated in a public place, possible humiliation or a specific object.

41. The Classification and Explanation of Anxiety Disorders • Explanation of Anxiety Disorders • Psychodynamic Explanation • result of unconscious conflicts that appear in the form of pathological behavior, such as the avoidance of certain objects or a constant sense of apprehension. • Learning Explanation • result of faulty learning involving inappropriate associations, such as pairing the sight of a snake with feelings of extreme uneasiness, or erroneous assumptions about the consequences of behavior, such as bad luck being avoided by walking around a ladder.

42. The Classification and Explanation of Anxiety Disorders • Cognitive Explanation • result of individuals maintaining a set of thoughts and beliefs that serve to foster a sense of intense fear, such as overestimating the amount of fear associated with an object or situation, endorsing self-defeating or irrational beliefs, being overly sensitive to situational cues, misinterpreting bodily sensations, and espousing low self-efficacy expectations. • Neurological Explanation • result of an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain that creates increased levels of arousal. They can be treated by drugs that serve to reestablish the balance of neurotransmitters to regulate the level of emotional arousal.

43. The Application of Personality Psychology • Anxiety in Advertising • A fear appeal is a form of advertising that utilizes anxiety as a means of motivating the consumer into action. Positive appeals emphasize how the use of the product will reduce the consumer’s anxiety, while negative appeals emphasize how failure to use the product will increase the consumer’s anxiety. • The successful use of fear appeals involves an ad that creates a moderate level of anxiety, which is followed by a specific recommendation designed to reduce the consumer’s anxiety and reinforce acting upon the recommendation.

44. The Application of Personality Psychology • Anxiety in Social Situation • Shyness consists of an affective, cognitive, and behavioral component. Three types of shyness are public, private and socially anxious shyness. While the self-selected strategies employed by shy individuals to deal with their shyness seem to have limited utility, successfully overcoming shyness involves incorporating different strategies corresponding the three different dimensions of shyness.