Preventing Child Sexual Abuse: The Role of Public Awareness Campaigns

1. Preventing Child Sexual Abuse: The Role of Public Awareness Campaigns Hazel Kemshall Professor of Community and Criminal Justice De Montfort University Leicester kemshall@dmu.ac.uk

2. Introduction • Despite numerous public awareness campaigns CSA remains a significant global issue. • So, do such campaigns work, and if so which types? • And if some do, what lessons can we learn for effectiveness? (Kemshall and Moulden, 2016).

3. What is a public awareness campaign? • Public awareness can be defined as a campaign that uses: ‘...media, messaging, and an organised set of communication activities to generate specific outcomes in a large number of individuals and in a specific period of time.’ (Coffman, 2002, p. 2). • Coffman also distinguishes between campaigns that ‘...try to change in individuals the behaviours that lead to social problems or promote behaviours that lead to improved social well-being’, and campaigns that aim to mobilize ‘public will’ or galvanize public action for policy change (2002, p. 2). • Wide range of types, audiences, methods, targeting strategies, and techniques with differing levels of effectiveness, and many characterised by lack of evaluative evidence or comparison.

4. Aims of public awareness • To inform, highlight, draw attention to a specific issue and to inspire others to act in desired ways. • Education to impart knowledge and/or skill aimed at increasing capacity and competence to act. • Tailored delivery methods suitable to audience. • Outreach and use of “champions” to influence those “hard to reach”. • Challenge of sustaining impact over time. (Kemshall and Moulden, 2016; Tamale,2013).

5. Developments • Historically, developments in public awareness campaigns do not follow a simple linear trajectory towards ever increasing sophistication or efficacy. • Types of campaigns are pursued for different reasons: survivors, relatives of victims, specific groups, raise money, advocacy and rights, and can differ across countries and within countries. Impacted by resources, ideology and value-framing. • Print media, social media, mass media; awareness raising, educative, and more latterly action oriented.

6. Evaluation and effectiveness: general points • Good practice and effectiveness guides are largely derived from general social marketing research, adapted for campaigns on sexual violence, gender based violence, and child sexual abuse (Cosc, 2015). • Evidence reviews have largely focused on specific campaigns or approaches (e.g. Fenton, Mott, McCartan, & Rumney, 2016, on bystander campaigns), with little comparison of effectiveness between approaches. • Few meta-analyses, see: Dickson and Willis (2015) who surveyed 42 agencies in New Zealand and described themes consistent with other international surveys (see Townsend, 2012 for US data).

7. Evaluation and Effectiveness: Specific points • Primary mode of prevention focused on sexual violence education, public policy advocacy, and increasing public awareness. • The majority of initiatives were focused on information about services for victims and perpetrators, and raising awareness versus primary prevention. • Furthermore, despite the fact that an ecological model was the most frequent prevention model endorsed, the method, implementation and evaluation of the public awareness programme reflected an individual focus aimed at influencing change within a victim, parent, or perpetrator.

8. What (mostly) works Although conclusive statements are avoided due to inadequacy in research evaluation of the programmes, successful components are summarized across programmes which- 1) emphasize an ecological model with embedded networks and partnerships within the community, 2) promote healthy behaviours and challenge cultural norms that support sexual abuse, 3) are tailored to the audience and include multiple targets, and 4) include research and evaluation. Lack of evidence on long-term behavioural changes is problematic. (Russell, 2008).

9. Problems and challenges • Mass media campaigns are less effective in… • conveying complex information, teaching skills, • changing attitudes and beliefs (see Saunders & Goddard, 2002). • What changes are observed…. • seem to be short-lived, and awareness and behavioural change are correlated with the active presence of media campaigns in a cyclical way (Olafsen , Corwin, & Summit, 1993 in Saunders & Goddard).

10. Other problems • Inadvertent victim blaming • Stating a problem but offering no solutions, conveys problem is perennial • ‘Switch-off’ • Lack of resonance with an existing powerful value-base, results in selective listening • Other psychological and societal barriers

11. Further developments: personal responsibility, normalizing action, and skill building • The social and psychological barriers to intervening can be considerable, -may be affective, behavioural or cognitive, and range from fearfulness to victim blaming, and a lack of perception of responsibility for intervening. • New developments targeting specific groups, and aimed at enhancing personal responsibility and efficacy (e.g. bystander programmes). • Normalizing intervention (this is the correct and expected thing to do). • Does this triad work? (Targeting, personal responsibility and normalization).

12. Effectiveness: Targeting, personal responsibility and normalization • Varying studies of differing rigour, some without clear comparative data. • What we do know: • Quality of the programme • Skills focused with an action orientation and cultural norms of expected action • Good role models and • Opinion formers. (Banyard, 2011, 2015; Bouder, 2013; Coker et al 2011; and Kemshall and Moulden, 2016 for other studies).

13. Organisational context and linkage to role and responsibilities • Leisurewatch- an interesting development but requires more independent evaluation, and is linked to… • Place and space management • Organisational fitness for safety, and.. • Improving workforce competence and capacity to act desirably

14. Action campaigns • Moving from ‘learn about’ to ‘learn to do’ • Skills focused, building confidence and capacity to act • Recognition of responsibility and ‘its everyone’s business’ • Examples: Bystander; Leisurewatch; some schools training; some parents programmes. • Research evaluations are in some cases ‘promising’, need to build an evidence base

15. Larger multi-faced campaigns • Perhaps the most cited is the ‘Enough Abuse’ campaign and ‘Massachusetts Citizens for Children’ (Schober, et al., 2012a, b; Massachusetts Citizens for Children 2014) • State wide education and community mobilisation effort. • Training and skills development targeted at families. • Backed up by mass media campaigning. • Website with tool kit, prevention tips and a helpline.

16. Enough Abuse evaluations “Evaluation results in 2003 and 2007 were indicative of success, with 69% of respondents reporting that adults should take responsibility in 2003, and by 2009 this had risen to 93%. Citizens were also urged to join Massachusetts Citizens for Children (2010). Whilst pledge data was not available at time of Schober’s article, the Enough Abuse campaign website recorded over 259,000 visits from December 2009 to August 2011. The final key indicator of success is the reduction in the incidence of CSA. Based on data from the Massachusetts Department of Children and Families (2009/10), the number of substantiated reports of CSA in Massachusetts declined 69% from 1990 to 2007 (the final year of the Enough Abuse Campaign’s CDC grant) (Schober, et al., 2012, p. 464). While the findings can’t be attributed solely to the campaign, the authors conclude that ‘the Enough Abuse Campaign’s contribution to educating community residents and successful legal advocacy likely contributed to this increased public awareness and possibly to preventive action’ (Schober, et al., 2012, p. 464; Massachusetts Citizens for Children 2014; see also Schober, Fawcett, Thigpen, Curtis & Wright, 2012)”. (Kemshall and Moulden, 2016)

17. But…. • Very large scale and big state government input, plus.. • A number of NGOs and partners involved • Funding required and… • Sustain over a number of years • Evaluation built in from start

18. Some key points overall… • Many campaigns but actually limited robust empirical evidence on effectiveness • To date, research appears to indicate that increased self-efficacy and ‘knowing what to do’; normalization of expectations to act positively; cultural and organizational norms; skill enhancement; empathy; and positive framing of victims are significant in enabling appropriate action. • Framing of CSA is important-ecological framing appears to work best. • Appropriate targeting clearly linked to desirable outcomes. • Broad, multi-faced campaigns that provide targeted, specific instruction and training to different groups (e.g. bystanders, parents)combined with some universal messaging have the greatest potential for success.

19. Conclusion “As prevention strategies continue to evolve, and public awareness campaigns promote and enable action, the future agenda for campaigning has subtly changed. The future for CSA prevention now lies not in public awareness campaigns, but rather in public action campaigns”. Kemshall and Moulden, 2016.

20. References (1) Banyard, V. L. (2011). Who will help prevent sexual violence: Creating an ecological model of bystander intervention. Psychology of Violence, 3, 115-120. Banyard, V. L. (2015). Toward the next generation of bystander prevention of sexual and relationship violence: Action coils to engage communities. New York: Springer. Bouder, S. (2013). Critical components for public awareness campaigns: Advocacy Unleashed. Retrieved from https://advocacyunleashed.kontribune.com/articles/1371.  Coffman, C. (2002). Public communication campaign evaluation: An environmental scan of challenges, criticisms, practice and opportunities. Communication Consortium Media Centre, Harvard Family Research Project. Retrieved from www.hfrp.org/content/download/1116/48621/file/pcce.pdf.

21. References (2) Coker, A., Cook-Craig, P., Williams, C., Fisher, B., Clear, E., Garcia, L, & Hegge, L. (2011). Evaluation of Green Dot: An active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses. Violence Against Women, 17, 777-796. Cosc (2015). Guidance on approaches to promoting and developing an understanding of domestic, sexual and gender-based violence. Dublin: COSC The National Office for the Prevention of Domestic, Sexual and Gender-based Violence. Retrieved from http://www.cosc.ie/en/COSC/Guidance%20on%20Approaches%20to%20Promoting%20and%20Developing%20an%20Understanding%20of%20Domestic,%20Sexual%20and%20 Gender-based%20violence.pdf . Dickson, S., & Willis, G. M. (2015). Primary prevention of sexual violence in Aotearoa New Zealand: A survey of prevention activities. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1079063215583852.

22. Fenton, R., Mott, H., McCartan, K. F., & Rumney, P. (2016). A review of evidence for bystander intervention to prevent sexual and domestic violence in universities. Public Health England. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sexual-anddomestic- violence-prevention-in-universities-evidence-review. Kemshall, H, and Moulden, H. (2016) Communicating about child sexual abuse with the public: learning the lessons from public awareness campaigns. Journal of Sexual Aggression, published online 6th Sept, 2016.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2016.1222004 Massachusetts Citizens for Children. (2014). Guide Star Nonprofit Profile Charting Impact Report. Retrieved from: http://www.guidestar.org/report/chartingimpact/499015251/massachusetts-citizenschildren. Pdf

23. Russell, N. (2008). What works in sexual violence prevention and education: A literature review prepared for the Ministry of Justice. Russell Research. Saunders, B. J., & Goddard, C. (2002). The role of mass media in facilitation community education and child abuse prevention strategies. National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australia Institute of Family Studies, 16, 1-24. Schober, D. J., Fawcett, S. B., & Bernier, J. (2012). The Enough Abuse campaign: Building the movement to prevent child sexual abuse in Massachusetts. Journal of child sexual abuse, 21, 456-469.

24. Schober, D., Fawcett, B., Thigpen, S., Curtis, A. & Wright, R. (2012). An empirical case study of a child sexual abuse prevention initiative in Georgia. Health Education Journal, Online version January 18th 2012, DOI: 1177/001786911430546. Retrieved from: http://hej.sagepub.com/content/71/3/291; Tamale, E. (March 25-29, 2013). Introduction to public awareness and education concepts and key elements of biosafety communication strategy. Presentation on behalf of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Asian Pacific Workshop, Hanoi. Retrieved from https://bch.cbd.int/protocol/.../06- pae_intro_communication_strategy.pdf; accessed September 8th 2015, or at: https://bch.cbd.int/onlineconferences/portal_art23/asiadocuments.shtml; accessed September 8th 2015. Townsend, C. (2015). Darkness to Light: Child Sexual Abuse Statistics. The Magnitude of the Problem. Retrieved from: http://www.d2l.org/atf/cf/%7B64AF78C4-5EB8-45AABC28- F7EE2B581919%7D/Statistics_1_Magnitude.pdf; July 15th 2016.