The Or Defining Music as a Step Toward Explaining its Origin Defining music as a step toward explaining its origin

1. The OrDefining Music as a Step Toward Explaining its Origin Defining music as a step toward explaining its origin Richard Parncutt University of Graz, Austria Society for Music Perception and Cognition Eastman School of Music, Rochester NY 11-14 August 2011 SysMus Graz

2. Abstract: Since the breakdown of tonality (Wagner to Schoenberg) and the emergence of ethnomusicology, musicologists have been reluctant to define music, since definitions always depend on historical, cultural, and academic context. But these historical developments merely showed that music need not be tonal and that the distinguishing features of Western music should be absent from a general definition. They also drew attention to the different meanings of “music” and its translations in different cultures and periods. Today’s theories of the origin(s) of music differ in part because researchers still have different implicit definitions of music. The problem can be solved by specifying exactly what music is assumed to be – which incidentally also allows “musicology” to be defined. A definition might run as follows. Both music and language are acoustic, meaningful, gestural, rhythmic/melodic, syntactic, social, emotional, and intentional; music and language differ in that music is less lexical, more repetitive, more spiritual, less socially essential, and more expertise based. Of course all the terms in these lists need to be explained and if possible operationalized, and individual claims supported. Given the paucity of reliable information about the behavior of early humans that could have influenced music’s development, we need to explore new approaches to evaluating theories of its origin. One approach is to evaluate the extent to which each theory can parsimoniously account for or predict the listed features. Another is to evaluate the quantity and quality of relevant empirical studies that are consistent with the specific processes posited in the theory. I will present details of this systematic approach and briefly show how it can be used to evaluate theories such as those based on mate selection, social cohesion, and motherese.

3. Centre for Systematic MusicologyUni Graz, Austria Bernd Brabec Ethnomusicology Erica Bisesi Expression in piano music Daniela Prem Timbre in Jazz Michaela Schwarz Secretary Martin Winter Music and minorities Fabio Kaiser History of music cognition

4. Contents • My personal biases • What is “music”? • Theories of its origin • Comparative evaluation

5. My bias: Own research Theory of bonding/care, motherese and prenatal experience as origin of music Musicae Scientiae (2009) Oxford handbook of music psychology (2009) Adaptations: prenatal audition infant-mother bonding motherese Byproduct:music

6. My bias: Favorite authors Patel (2008). Music, language and the brain Ability to acquire language: more likely adaptation than music • music acquisition takes longer • more differences in music ability • amusiahasmoresocial & biologicalcost Thompson (2009). Music, thought and feeling • severaltheorieshaveprosandcons, couldbe valid • different originsfor different components Both • cleartextfor non-specialists clarityforexperts, bigpicture

7. Bias: Parsimony, ecology, learning Patel (2009, p. 356): “from a scientific perspective it is better (because it assumes less) to take the null hypothesis that the trait in question has not been a direct target of selection. One can then ask if there is enough evidence to reject this hypothesis” Livingstone & Thompson (2009, p. 84) “there has been curious lack of attention to the possibility that musical origins can be explained without the need to invoke music-specific genes” Justus & Hutsler(2005, p. 1) “Pinker’s description of music as ‘auditory cheesecake’ has motivated many researchers within the music cognition community to respond with a renewed drive to ‘legitimize’ music as a cognitive domain worthy of study by establishing its biological and evolutionary bases”

8. Assumed knowledge(?) Physiology • large brain  early birth, more parental care • music modules not necessarily “genetic” (neuroplasticity!) • low larynx size exaggeration, diversity of sounds Behavior • musilanguage(Brown) until: • phylogeny: c. 100(0) 000 years ago • ontogeny: c. 1 year old • separation of music from language in ritual • make language special music, reflection (Dissanayake) Evolution • music uses many non-musical adaptations, e.g. auditory scene analysis, motor control, emotion systems • cognitive adaptations vsexaptations, and biological vs cultural aspects, are hard to separate (Fitch, Trainor)

9. Western history of defining“music” Pythagoras  Boethius: 3 kinds of musica • mundana (cosmos), instrumentalis (music), humana (health) 19th Century musicology: ethnocentric • ratios, tonality, meter Post-Wagner, post-Schoenberg; ethnomusicology • “music” = complex, culture-specific holistic concept • definition depends on historical, cultural, academic context Today’s music psychology • list of universals from a Western perspective • prerequisiteforscientificdiscussion (cf. hermeneutics in humanities)

10. Music at the birth of humanitythe “music” that I want to explain

11. Language andmusicuniversal featuresfrom a Western perspective

12. Three theories of music’s origin • Mate attraction • Social glue 3. Motherese Not considered here: 4. Cognitive training (Roederer, Cross) 5. Continuism, animal calls (Merker, McDermott) 6. Non-adaptive pleasure seeking (Pinker, Huron)

13. 1. MATE: Sexual attractionDarwin (1871), Miller (2000), Levitin (2006) Evidence • music is universal  adaptation? • song and dance reflect fitness • more male than female musicians • being in love = strong emotion • period of creativity = sexually activity Scenario • ritualised displays of music (Darwin) and dance (Dean et al.) • girl chooses boy (?)

14. 2. TRIBE: Social glueBrown (2000), Freeman (2000), Cross (2009), Dunbar (xxx), Huron (2001), McNeill (1995), Roederer (1984) Evidence • music fosters groups identity • motivates participants to support group • shared emotions  political control • promotes group survival in famine, war? • Scenario • ritual •  socialorganisation •  music- speechseparation “tribe“ = c. 100 hunter-gatherers

15. 3. BABY: Mother-infant bondDissanayake (2000), Falk (2004), Parncutt (2009) Evidence • Prenatal sound patterns are music-like • similar to melody and rhythm • depend on mother’s emotional state • Motherese is music-like • gestural, emotional, meaningful • Babies have music-like skills • like adult non-musicians (Trehub) Scenario Larger brain  earlier birth  altriciality motherese

16. How can theories of the origin of music be evaluated? Insurmountable problems • Little evidence of ancient musical behavior • Early “music” may have been quite different • Emergent scenarios cannot be evaluated • Predictions can no longer be tested Given the transitory nature of musical performance, we are extremely unlikely to ever know what kind of musical behavior our hominid ancestors engaged in (Fitch, 2006, p. 85) Practical solution: • Analyse how each theory explains today’s music

17. Systematic evaluation procedure Three theories MATE, TRIBE, BABY Many features …of musilanguageAND of music after splitting from language Three questions How consistent is each theory with each feature? How well does each theory explain each feature? For which theory do we have empirical evidence? Point scores: 2 = good, 1 = ok, 0 = poor Based on known evidence and assumed scenario Preliminary, subjective

18. Both language and music are 1. Primarilyacousticphysical vibrations of voice, instruments, air, ear... Physicallimitations: • physiology ofvoiceandear • size resonancesofvocaltract • f0rangeofmusic ≈ 100 – 1000 Hz Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 1 All threescenariosareacoustic but could also happen withoutsound

19. Both language and music are 2. Primarilyvocal Speech ismore fundamental (older) thanwriting Vocalmusicismore fundamental (older) than instrumental (Lehmann et al., 2009); instrumental melodieshavevocalcharacter, lie in vocalrange Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 BABY ispurelyvocal, MATE and TRIBE couldinvolveinstruments

20. Both language and music are 3. MeaningfulThey communicate information language: obvious music: mysterious philosophical & psychologicalissues Evaluation: MATE 2, TRIBE 2, BABY 2 All 3 scenarioscommunicateinformation

21. Both language and music are4. Multimodalprimarily acoustic - but also corporal/gestural and visual Language • role of sign and gesture Music • dance, conducting, musicians’ gestures • we talk about “rising pitch”, “fast tempo” Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 Mothereseisclearly multimodal, theothers not necessarily

22. Both language and music are 5. Categoricalin pitch and time Speech: timing + intonation = prosody Categorical perception of phonemes by duration and pitch Music: rhythm + contour = melody Categorical perception of tones by metric position and scale step (more categories, more hierarchical). Western music: harmony Difference: a consequence of repetition? Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 1 All threescenariosare repetitive but connectionisunclear

23. Both language and music are6. Structured, organisedin pitch and time; universals in anatomy, physiology, cognition • Melody: like speech in... pitch/interval distributions, tone/phrase durations, arch shape • Rhythm: tempo range like footsteps & heartbeats; movement character (multimodal); beat induction, entrainment • Form: repetition, call-response, motivic development Evaluation: MATE 2, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 For TRIBE theconnectionto human anatomyislessclear

24. Both language and music are 7. Syntacticbased on structural elements and principles Language • nouns, verbs, subjects etc. Music • motives, scale steps, beats etc. Both • contextual probabilities • hierarchical structures • ambiguities (esp. music) Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 1 All threescenarioshavesyntax - but simpler thantoday‘smusic

25. Both language and music are 8. Complexcomprising many elements and patterns Quasi-infinite elaboration of finite elements • language  complex semantics • music  complex pitch-time patterns  creativity, novelty, diversity Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 Wehaveempiricaldataonlyforthecomplexityofmotherese

26. Both language and music are 9. Socialpromoting group cohesion Language and music • give groups and participants identity • enable & motivate coordinated action Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 2, BABY 2 Flirtingislessaltruistic

27. Both language and music are 10. Emotional motivating action Similar acoustic cues e.g. sadness (separation distress) = soft, slow, monotonous Strong and weak emotion music performance, theatre In music, emotion is “special” Evaluation: MATE 2, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 Lovers andbabiesaremore emotional than ritual participants

28. Both language and music are 11. Intentionalcreated intentionally and motivating people (not) to act • reviewing, planning • theory of mind, affective engagement • musicasvirtualperson • intention, deliberate action • language: lying • music: emotional manipulation Evaluation: MATE 2, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 intentionalityisclearer in one-to-oneinteractions

29. Both language and music are 12. Flexiblewith many different functions and meanings (Thompson) • social • emotional • medical • political • economic Generative: • variety • creativity Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 2, BABY 1 specificgoalofinteractionlimitsrangeofmeanings

30. Differences

31. 1. Music: lesslexical, moretimbral • less like words in a dictionary (Leitmotiv?) • lessreferential moremysteriousthanotherarts (e.g. forextraterrestrials) • more sound-, timbre-, consonance-oriented You can’t order a pizza with a violin, right? Evaluation: MATE 0, TRIBE 0, BABY 2 only BABY isprelinguistic; andcaringadultshaveconsonantvoices

32. 2. Music ismorerepetitive Musical themescanbeendlesslyrepeated • more formal, morepoeticthanspeech • childplay, learning • entrainment, sharedintentionality I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class I must not talk in class Evaluation: MATE 1, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 Wehaveempiricaldata on repetitivenessonlyformotherese Babiesneedrepetitiontolearn

33. 3. Music ismorepolyphonic • Indonesian Gamelan • Central African pigmy songs • Tuvan overtone singing • “Northwest Asian court music” Evaluation: MATE 0, TRIBE 2, BABY 1

34. 4. Music ismorepleasurableSchubert, Becker • creates a positive atmosphere • whichmotivatesevenmoremusicmaking • reduces stress • e.g. fear e.g. ofstrangers • moreoften emotional thanspeech • evenif not intrinsicallymore emotional Evaluation: MATE 2, TRIBE 1, BABY 2 Tribalmeetingsmight also involveconflictresolution

35. 5. Music ismore spiritualtranscendent, connecting, life-changingGabrielsson & LindströmWik (2003) Extraordinary experiences • trance, flow, ecstacy; loss of awareness of self, body, time, space • being surrounded, enclosed; oneness, wholeness • intimacy, divine communication • other dimensions, worlds, heaven, afterlife • meaning of life, meaning of everything, totality Special emotions • wonder, transcendence, tenderness, nostalgia, peace, power, joy, tension, sadness (Zentner et al, 2008) Evaluation: MATE 0, TRIBE 0, BABY 2

36. 6. Music islesssocially essential • People withaphasia • conspicuous • serioussocialdifficulties • People withamusia • relativelyinconspicuous Evaluation: not possiblefor a negative feature

37. 7. Music ismoreexpertisebased • Speaking • everyoneisexpectedto do it • everyonepracticesconstantly • Playingmusic • expertsareadmired • onlyexpertspracticeregularly Evaluation: MATE 2, TRIBE 0, BABY 1

38. Points forMATE, TRIBE, BABY

39. Conclusion BABY best predicts multiple musical features All three (MATE, TRIBE & BABY)may have contributed to ancient emergence and development of music Any theory can be evaluated by this method