Final Exam Cumulative Review Slides

1. Final Exam Cumulative Review Slides Lectures 1-17

2. Anatomical Terminology Anatomical Position– body standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward • Terms of Relative Position • Superior versus Inferior • Anterior versus Posterior • Medial versus Lateral • Ipsilateral versus Contralateral • Proximal versus Distal • Superficial versus Deep

3. Body Regions Fig 1.1 in Lab Manual, Figure 1.7 in Textbook

4. Homeostasis A CRITICAL (and very testable) concept in physiology Body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment **Absence of homeostasis = DISEASE • Homeostatic Mechanisms – monitor aspects of the internal environment and corrects any changes • Receptors - provide information about environment • Control center - tells what a particular value should be • Effectors - causes responses to change internal environment Negative feedback– deviation from set point progressively lessens Positive feedback– deviation from set point gets progressively greater

5. Homeostasis • Remember that homeostasis does NOT mean constant! • Continual variations occur in body systems • Gives rise to ‘normal ranges’ (See Appendix B) • Examples of negative feedback • Temperature regulation, blood pressure, blood glucose levels • Examples of positive feedback • Blood clotting, milk production, uterine contraction

6. Chemical Bond Summary

7. Acids, Bases, and Salts Electrolytes – soluble inorganic substances that release ions in water (aqueous) and will conduct an electrical current NaCl  Na+ + Cl- Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in water HCl  H+ + Cl- Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution NaOH  Na+ + OH- Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base (anions/cations EXCEPT H+ or OH-) HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl

8. pH (H+ concentration) *Notice:[H+], pH, [OH-] *Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-] pH scale- indicates the concentration of FREE hydrogen ions in solution (think: “power of Hydrogen”) *pH of human blood plasma = 7.35 – 7.45 (AVG = 7.4) Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in water Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution

10. Summary of Transport Processes

11. Summary of Transport Processes

12. Osmolarity and Tonicity • Osmolarity of a solution is a measure of a solution’s attraction for water and depends on the number of particles ‘trapped’ in that solution • Higher the osmolarity, the higher the solute concentration • Higher the osmolarity, more strongly water is attracted • Tonicity is a comparison of the osmolarity between two solutions • Equal osmolarity, no net water movement • Unequal osmolarity, water will always move into the more concentrated solution (from hypotonic to hypertonic)

13. Osmotic Pressure/Tonicity Osmotic Pressure (Osmolarity) – ability of solute to generate enough pressure to move a volume of water by osmosis *Osmotic pressure increases as the number of nonpermeable solutes particles increases • isotonic – same osmotic pressure as a second solution • hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure • hypOtonic – lower osmotic pressure 0.9% NaCl5.0% Glucose Crenation The Oin hypotonic

14. Passage of Materials through the Cell Membrane Carrier/channel proteins required for all but fat-soluble molecules and small uncharged molecules oxygen, carbon dioxide and other lipid-soluble substances diffuse freely through the membrane

15. Cellular Organelles Table 1 of 2

16. Cellular Organelles Table 2 of 2

17. Some Definitions… *Chromatin– combination of DNA plus histone proteins used to pack DNA in the cell nucleus • Gene – segment of DNA that codes for a protein or RNA • - About 30,000 protein-encoding genes in humans • - DNA’s instructions are ultimately responsible for the ability of the cell to make ALL its components • Genome – complete set of genes of an organism • Human Genome Project was complete in 2001 • Genomes of other organisms are important also Genetic Code – method used to translate a sequence of nucleotides of DNA into a sequence of amino acids

18. Cell Death • Two mechanisms of cell death • Necrosis • Programmed cell death (PCD or apoptosis) • Necrosis • Tissue degeneration following suddent, unexpected cellular injury or destruction • Cellular contents released into the environment causing an inflammatory response • Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis) • Orderly, intentional cell death • Cellular contents are contained and cell is immediately phagocytosed ; no inflammation

19. Transcription/Translation • Transcription • generates mRNA from DNA • Occurs in nucleus of the cell • Uses ribonucleotides to synthesize mRNA • Translation • generates polypeptides (proteins) from mRNA • Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell • Uses 3 components: 1. mRNA – carries copy of genetic instructions from DNA; has codons 2. tRNA w/aa; function as adapters in protein synthesis; has anticodons 3. Ribosomes; provide scaffold for protein synthesis and has enzymes that link adjacent amino acids

20. The Genetic Code • Codon – group of three ribonucleotides found in mRNA that specifies an aa • Anticodon – group of three ribonucleotides found in tRNA that allows specific hydrogen bonding with mRNA • AUG is a start codon and also codes for MET. UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons that terminate the translation of the mRNA strand.

21. Find the AMINO ACID SEQUENCE that corresponds to the following gene region on the DNA: Template -> G G T C T C A T T Coding -> C C A G A G T A A

22. Enzymes • Enzymes are proteins • They are biological catalysts • Speed up reactions • Are not consumed during reaction • Highly specific for their substrate • Work by lowering the activation energy needed to start a reaction • May require cofactors/coenzymes

23. ATP – An Activated Carrier Molecule • each ATP molecule has three parts: • an adenine molecule • a ribose molecule • three phosphate molecules in a chain These two components together are called a ? • ATP carries its energy in the form or P (phosphate) • ATP is a readily interchangeable form of energy for cellular reactions (“common currency”) High-energy bonds Reversible reaction of ATP breakdown and regeneration ATP  ADP + P

24. Summary Table of Cell Respiration

25. Cell Nucleus • control center of cell • nuclear envelope (membrane) • porous double membrane • separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm (*eukaryotes only) • nucleolus • dense collection of RNA and proteins • site of ribosome production • chromatin • fibers of DNA and proteins • stores information for synthesis of proteins Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson

26. The Cell Cycle • series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divides • stages • interphase (G1, S, G2) • mitosis • cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson Differentiatedcells may spend all their time in ‘G0’ (neurons, skeletal muscle, red blood cells). Stem cells may never enter G0

27. Mitosis and Meiosis Figures from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001 Mitosis – production of two identical diploid daughter cells Meiosis – production of four genetically varied, haploid gametes

28. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue • Specialized contacts with other cells • Polarity (different ends of cell do different things) • Avascularity (no blood supply) • Regeneration (can divide to make new cells) • Cellularity (lots of cells in close contact) Remember: Epithelial tissues always have a free surface and a basement membrane

29. Membranes A membrane is a combination of epithelium and connective tissue that covers and protects other structures and tissues. Technically, then, a membrane is an organ. • Mucous • line tubes and organs that open to outside world • lining of mouth, nose, throat, digestive tract, etc. • secrete mucus • Serous • line body cavities that lack openings to outside • reduce friction • inner lining of thorax and abdomen • cover organs of thorax and abdomen (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum) • secrete serous fluid • Synovial • surround joint cavities • Cutaneous • covers body • skin

30. Introduction to Inflammation Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001 HistamineHeparin Histamine Restoration of homeostasis after tissue injuryor infections involves two processes: 1)inflammationand2)repair. Major signs (hallmarks) of inflammation: Redness, heat, pain, swelling, loss of function (Inflammation = ‘-itis’)

31. Glandular Epithelium Composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete substances Endocrine glands are ductless – secrete directly into the blood Exocrine glands have ducts – secrete into a duct or on to a surface • Unicellular exocrine gland • composed of one cell • Example: goblet cell • Multicellular exocrine gland • composed of many cells • Examples: sweat glands, sebaceous glands, salivary glands, etc.

32. Connective Tissue (CT) Summary TableThree main components of ALL CT: cell, fibers, ground substance -cyte = fully differentiated; -blast = young, actively synthesizing cell

33. Components of Connective Tissue Table from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 Ground substance - Exists between the fibers and cells - Varies from semisolid to liquid - Composed of large molecules, many of which are complex combinations of polysaccharides and proteins

34. Skin Color/Thermoregulation Diaphoresis - sweating with visible wetness • Physiological Factors affecting skin color • dilation of dermal blood vessels (erythema – reddening of skin) • constriction of dermal blood vessels (less pink, pale = pallor) • level of oxygenation of blood * normal = pink (fair-skinned) * low = bluish (cyanosis) Hyperthermia – higher than normal body temp; corrected by dilation of dermal blood vessels, sweating. Hypothermia – lower than normal body temp; corrected by constriction of dermal blood vessels, shivering.

35. Structures of the Integument SKIN Accessory Structures Epidermis = protection; Dermis = nourishment of epidermis; SubQ = insulation Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001

36. Functions of Integument • The Integumentary System has numerous functions that are related to its composition and structure • Protection • Temperature regulation (sweat, blood vessels) • Excretion • Vitamin D production • Sensation (touch, pressure) • The epidermis – the outer, protective layer • S. basale, s. spinosum, s. granulosum, s. lucidum (thick skin only), s. corneum

37. Dermis and Hypodermis • The dermis – the lower, nutritive layer • Papillary dermis (areolar CT) • Reticular dermis (dense irregular CT) • Dermis contains accessory organs of skin • The hypodermis(subcutaneous, superficial fascia) • Insulates (areolar CT with abundant fat) • Reservoir of blood • Stabilizes dermis • NOT part of the skin

38. Hail, Nails, Glands of Integument • Accessory structures of the integumentary system • Hair – warmth, protection • Nails – defense; picking up objects • Sweat glands • Apocrine (merocrine) - odoriferous • Eccrine (merocrine) - thermoregulation • Modified (mammary, ceruminous) • Sebaceous glands • Secrete sebum (waxy, fatty substance) • Lubricate/protect hair and skin • Sebum is antibacterial

39. Compact and Spongy Bone Each bone in the skeleton contains two forms of osseous tissue - Compact bone(cortical) – solid (with osteons as structural units); found on outer parts of bone - Spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone – network of struts and plates (trabeculae); found within the inner parts of bone Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010

40. Epiphyseal Plates Epiphyseal cartilage = epiphyseal plate; allows long bones to grow in length

41. Homeostasis of Bone Tissue Bone remodeling is a process that continues throughout life, and is accomplished by two processes: 1) Bone Resorption – action of osteoclasts and parathyroid hormone (PTH) 2) Bone Deposition – action of osteoblasts and calcitonin • FACTORS AFFECTING REMODELING, GROWTH AND REPAIR OF BONE • Mineral salts, especially Calcium and Phosphorus • Deficiencies of vitamins A, C, and D • Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development • Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile (brittle) bones • Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia • Growth factors and Hormones • Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification (closure) of epiphyseal plates • Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) – stim. by hGH • Insufficient Growth Hormone – pituitary dwarfism • Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly • Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth • Physical Stress (exercise) – stimulates bone growth

42. Axial Skeleton - Thoracic Cage • True = 7 pairs • False = 3 pairs • Floating = 2 pairs

43. Synovial Joints * Diarthrotic (freely movable) Structural features of diarthrotic joints - joint cavity* - articular cartilage - synovial membrane - synovial fluid - reinforcing ligaments, bursae and tendons Synovial fluid: Lubricates, distributes nutrients, and absorbs shock

44. Divisions of the Pelvis (Greater) (Lesser) Pelvic brim = (sacral promontory, sacral ala, arcuate line, pectineal line, pubic crest) x 2

45. Joint Classification (S) = Synarthrosis(A) = Amphiarthrosis(D) = Diarthrosis (N) = Nonaxial(M) = Monaxial(B) = Biaxial(P) = Polyaxial Structural Classification of Joints Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial (D) Suture (S) Synchondrosis (S) Gliding (N) Syndesmosis (A) Symphysis (A) Hinge (M) Pivot (M) Gomphosis (S) Condyloid (B) Saddle (B) Ball/Socket (P) This would be a really good chart to know for the exam!

46. Synovial Joint Movements Summary • Flexion – decrease in angle between bones • Extension – increase in angle between bones • ABduction – movement away from midline • ADduction – movement toward midline • Circumduction – Movement of the distal end of a limb in a circle • Supination – palm facing anteriorly • Pronation – palm facing posteriorly • Protraction – anterior movement in transverse plane • Retraction – posterior movement in transverse plane • Dorsiflexion – Superior surface of foot moves superiorly • Plantar flexion – Inferior surface of foot moves inferiorly

47. Muscles/Actions

48. Muscles/Actions

49. Organization of Skeletal Muscle Gross: Muscle (and fascia/epimysium), fascicle (and perimysium) Histological: Fiber (cell), endomysium Molecular: Myofibrils, sarcomere structure, actin/myosin arrangement • epimysium (around muscle) • perimysium (around fascicles) • endomysium (around fibers, or cells) Alphabetical order largest to smallest: fascicle, fiber, fibril, and filament

50. Skeletal Muscle Fiber (Cell) Fully differentiated, specialized cell – its structures are given special names • sarcolemma (plasma membrane) • sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) • sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER) • transverse tubule • triad • cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum (2) • transverse tubule • myofibril (1-2 µm diam.) Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007 Transverse tubules contain extracellular fluid ( [Na+],  [K+]) Sarcoplasmic reticulum is like the ER of other cells; but it contains [Ca2+ ]