Supporting standards comprise 35% of the U. S. History Test 19 (E)

Supporting standards comprise 35% of the U. S. History Test 19 (E)

Supporting Standard (19)The student understands changes over time in the role of government. The Student is expected to: (E) Evaluate the pros & cons of U. S. participation in international organizations & treaties

George Washington’s “Farewell Address” “The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is, in extending our commercial relations to have with them as little political connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. Here let us stop.”

Washington goes on to urge the American people to take advantage of their isolated position in the world, and avoid attachments and entanglements in foreign affairs, especially those of Europe, which he argues have little or nothing to do with the interests of America. He argues that it makes no sense for the American people to wage war on European soil when their isolated position and unity will allow them to remain neutral and focus on their own affairs. As a result, Washington argues that the country should avoid permanent alliance with all foreign nations, although temporary alliances during times of extreme danger may be necessary, but does say that current treaties should be honored although not extended. Washington goes on to urge the American people to take advantage of their isolated position in the world, and avoid attachments and entanglements in foreign affairs, especially those of Europe, which he argues have little or nothing to do with the interests of America. He argues that it makes no sense for the American people to wage war on European soil when their isolated position and unity will allow them to remain neutral and focus on their own affairs. As a result, Washington argues that the country should avoid permanent alliance with all foreign nations, although temporary alliances during times of extreme danger may be necessary, but does say that current treaties should be honored although not extended.

League of Nations The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, “Société des Nations” abbreviated as SDN in French) was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labor conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from September 28, 1934 to February 23, 1935, it had 58 members. The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, “Société des Nations” abbreviated as SDN in French) was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labor conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from September 28, 1934 to February 23, 1935, it had 58 members.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. When, during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that “the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out.” The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. When, during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that “the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out.”

League of Nations—Why It Failed Wilson envisioned the League as a world conscience, an organized moral force—a parliament of nations in which international problems could be discussed and solved (shades of the Concert of Europe of 1815)

Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations—required member nations to protect one another against aggression, to guarantee mutual independence and territorial integrity. Americans like Senator Henry Cabot Lodge feared this would entangle the U. S. in war

Purpose and Goals of the League • Promote international cooperation • Achieve international peace and security • It was founded on the concept that collective security with peace maintained by the community of nations rather than a “balance of power” • Specific Goals:

Specific Goals: • International disarmament • In this, the League failed. Verification of disarmament violations (e.g., Iraq after the Gulf War) were difficult to prove; secret treaties were made; it was hard to find a valid basis for determining the military power of a nation • Arbitration of international disputes • Provision for the League Council were vague and necessitated unanimous approval. It was effective for settling disputes among the smaller powers, but when big power interests collided, the League proved quite powerless

Specific Goals Continued • Sanctions against aggression • To be effective, these sanctions needed the approval of all the big powers (and not all were members of the League). The League had not military troops to put teeth into its actions. Military sanctions were left to the discretion of each individuals member. • Treaty revision • Article 18 was intended to prevent secret diplomacy; Article 19 allowed for changes in treaties once the hatred of war cooled. . . but the powers did not use this opportunity fully

Problems With the League Several big, important nations were not members • Germany entered in 1926 • USSR entered in 1934 • USA never entered due to strong isolationist sentiment in postwar America—an “America for Americans” sentiment • The US failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles • In its absence, the League was dominated by the European victors without an impartial arbiter which the US could have been

The Central Problem The big powers would not act selflessly except in fields that did not effect their national interests

Accomplishments of the League • It improved the standard of colonial administration • It raised the status of workers everywhere by an international labor organization • Its concern with matters of health • Its concern with illicit drug traffic • Its concern with the international arms trade Many of these important institutions were precursors of United Nations organizations for which they set important precedents.

Changes made by Wilson to obtain Senate approval of the League Covenant • Allowed for withdrawal from the League • Recognition of the importance of the Monroe Doctrine in the Western hemisphere

Wilson’s Failures • The division of the spoils of war and creation of new nations created new minorities, cf., Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary • Wilson’s position was weakened by: • The mid-term election of a Republican Congress in 1918 • Wilson had neglected to include any major Republicans in the American delegation he took to Paris; this impolitic exclusion came back to haunt him after the 1918 election

Wilson arrived in Europe almost a messianic figure. “Never before had such crowds acclaimed a democratic political figure.” Understandably, “Wilson was sure that the poeple of Europe shared his goals and would force their leaders to accept his peace.” When Lodge (below) and others obstructed treaty ratification, Wilson took his case directly to the American people. In September 1919, he set out on an aggressive speaking campaign to muster grass roots support. In Pueblo, Colorado, after making perhaps the most effective speech of his tour, he fell ill. Upon his return to Washington, he collapsed on the White House floor, the victim of a stroke. He remained at least partially incapacitated for the duration of his presidency, leaving himself open to the charge that his wife, Edith Bolling Wilson, was actually running the country.

After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 27 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World War and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League.

Decline of the League At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labor Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN. The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League. The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on April 12, 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly. This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: it transferred assets worth approximately US$22,000,000 in 1946, (including the Palace of Peace and the League's archives) to the UN, returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them, and settled the debts of the League. At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labor Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN. The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League. The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on April 12, 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly. This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: it transferred assets worth approximately US$22,000,000 in 1946, (including the Palace of Peace and the League's archives) to the UN, returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them, and settled the debts of the League.

Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were “institutionalized,” as opposed to the pre–First World War methods of law and politics. The principal Allies in the Second World War (the UK, the USSR, France, the US, and the Republic of China) became permanent members of the United Nations Security Council in 1946. (In 1971 the People’s Republic of China replaced the Republic of China (Taiwan) as permanent member of the UN Security Council, and in 1991 the Russian Federation replaced the USSR.) Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN; however, unanimous decisions are not required, unlike in the League Council. Permanent members of the Security Council can wield a veto to protect their vital interests. Like its predecessor, the United Nations does not have its own standing armed forces, but calls on its members to contribute to armed interventions, such as during the Korean War and for the peacekeeping mission in the former Yugoslavia. Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were “institutionalized,” as opposed to the pre–First World War methods of law and politics. The principal Allies in the Second World War (the UK, the USSR, France, the US, and the Republic of China) became permanent members of the United Nations Security Council in 1946. (In 1971 the People’s Republic of China replaced the Republic of China (Taiwan) as permanent member of the UN Security Council, and in 1991 the Russian Federation replaced the USSR.) Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN; however, unanimous decisions are not required, unlike in the League Council. Permanent members of the Security Council can wield a veto to protect their vital interests. Like its predecessor, the United Nations does not have its own standing armed forces, but calls on its members to contribute to armed interventions, such as during the Korean War and for the peacekeeping mission in the former Yugoslavia.

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on October 24,1945 to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The UN Headquarters resides in international territory in New York City, with further main offices in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict. The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on October 24,1945 to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The UN Headquarters resides in international territory in New York City, with further main offices in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.

Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform the U.N. but little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been numerous calls for the U.N. Security Council’s membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN’s Secretary-General, and for a U. N. Nations Parliamentary Assembly. Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is “the North–South split” between richer Northern nations & the developing Southern nations. Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world affairs, while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez-faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism. Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform the U.N. but little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been numerous calls for the U.N. Security Council’s membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN’s Secretary-General, and for a U. N. Nations Parliamentary Assembly. Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is “the North–South split” between richer Northern nations & the developing Southern nations. Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world affairs, while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez-faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism.

The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it a machin (“contraption”), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defense treaties between countries. Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other. Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that the “accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms. Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions.” Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN’s history, the author Stanley Meisler writes that “the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders, but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless,” citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts. The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it a machin (“contraption”), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defense treaties between countries. Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other. Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that the “accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms. Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions.” Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN’s history, the author Stanley Meisler writes that “the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders, but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless,” citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts.

Collective defense Collective defense is an arrangement, usually formalized by a treaty and an organization, among participant states that commit support in defense of a member state if it is attacked by another state outside the organization. NATO is the best known collective defense organization. Its now famous Article V calls on (but does not fully commit) member states to assist another member under attack. This article was invoked after the September 11 attacks on the United States, after which other NATO members provided assistance to the US War on Terror in Afghanistan. Collective defense has been shown to be very helpful to all countries. Collective defense is an arrangement, usually formalized by a treaty and an organization, among participant states that commit support in defense of a member state if it is attacked by another state outside the organization. NATO is the best known collective defense organization. Its now famous Article V calls on (but does not fully commit) member states to assist another member under attack. This article was invoked after the September 11 attacks on the United States, after which other NATO members provided assistance to the US War on Terror in Afghanistan. Collective defense has been shown to be very helpful to all countries.

Collective defense has its roots in multiparty alliances, and entails benefits as well as risks. On the one hand, by combining and pooling resources, it can reduce any single state’s cost of providing fully for its security. Smaller members of NATO, for example, have leeway to invest a greater proportion of their budget on non-military priorities, such as education or health, since they can count on other members to come to their defense, if needed. On the other hand, collective defense also involves risky commitments. Member states can become embroiled in costly wars in which neither the direct victim nor the aggressor benefit. In the First World War, countries in the collective defense arrangement known as the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia) were pulled into war quickly when Russia started full mobilization against Austria-Hungary, whose ally Germany subsequently declared war on Russia. Collective defense has its roots in multiparty alliances, and entails benefits as well as risks. On the one hand, by combining and pooling resources, it can reduce any single state’s cost of providing fully for its security. Smaller members of NATO, for example, have leeway to invest a greater proportion of their budget on non-military priorities, such as education or health, since they can count on other members to come to their defense, if needed. On the other hand, collective defense also involves risky commitments. Member states can become embroiled in costly wars in which neither the direct victim nor the aggressor benefit. In the First World War, countries in the collective defense arrangement known as the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia) were pulled into war quickly when Russia started full mobilization against Austria-Hungary, whose ally Germany subsequently declared war on Russia.

Collective security Collective or multinational security can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches to peace. Collective security is more ambitious than systems of alliance security or collective defense in that it seeks to encompass the totality of states within a region or indeed globally, and to address a wide range of possible threats. While collective security is an idea with a long history, its implementation in practice has proved problematic. Several prerequisites have to be met for it to have a chance of working. Collective or multinational security can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches to peace. Collective security is more ambitious than systems of alliance security or collective defense in that it seeks to encompass the totality of states within a region or indeed globally, and to address a wide range of possible threats. While collective security is an idea with a long history, its implementation in practice has proved problematic. Several prerequisites have to be met for it to have a chance of working.

Prerequisites Hans Morgenthau (1948) writes that three prerequisites must be met for collective security to successfully prevent war: 1. The collective security system must be able to assemble military force in strength greatly in excess to that assembled by the aggressor(s) thereby deterring the aggressor(s) from attempting to change the world order defended by the collective security system. 2. Those nations, whose combined strength would be used for deterrence as mentioned in the first prerequisite, should have identical beliefs about the security of the world order that the collective is defending. 3. Nations must be willing to subordinate their conflicting interests to the common good defined in terms of the common defense of all member-states. Hans Morgenthau (1948) writes that three prerequisites must be met for collective security to successfully prevent war: 1. The collective security system must be able to assemble military force in strength greatly in excess to that assembled by the aggressor(s) thereby deterring the aggressor(s) from attempting to change the world order defended by the collective security system. 2. Those nations, whose combined strength would be used for deterrence as mentioned in the first prerequisite, should have identical beliefs about the security of the world order that the collective is defending. 3. Nations must be willing to subordinate their conflicting interests to the common good defined in terms of the common defense of all member-states.

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Supporting standards comprise 35% of the U. S. History Test 19 (E)