Socio-cultural level of analysis

1. Socio-cultural level of analysis

2. What is social psychology ? scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

3. Early psychology was the study of the individual acting alone. As the discipline matured, psychologists recognized that human behaviour could be fully understood only if the social context in which behaviour occurred was also taken into account.

5. Levels of explanation (analysis) The various levels that explain one event are not necessarily contradictory. They are often complimentary. There is no one level of explanation that is the �real� explanation. Different levels of explanation often fit together to form a fuller picture. Not very useful to think in terms of either/or. ( biological, social or cognitive) eg: aggression

6. Figure 18.12 Biopsychosocial understanding of aggressionMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright � 2007 by Worth PublishersFigure 18.12 Biopsychosocial understanding of aggressionMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright � 2007 by Worth Publishers

7. So the socio-cultural level of analysis integrates; biological aspects ( eg social behaviours as adaptations to the environment), Cognitive aspects (the importance of cognitive processes in the social context ) There is a now a general consensus that psychology is a synthesis of the biological, cognitive and sociocultural levels of analysis

8. Difference between sociology and social psychology Sociologists are interested in the institutions and culture that influence the group Psychologists instead focus on situational variables that influence the individual

9. Outline principles that define the socio-cultural level of analysis

10. 1. The Social context/situation influences individual behaviour 2. Culture influences behaviour 3. Humans are social animals, they have a social self

11. Principle 1 As human beings we are constantly being influenced by other people, and by the requirements of society, even when we believe we are acting independently; Human behaviour is explained by the social situation more than dispositional factors, such as individual personality; This is demonstrated explicity in Zimbardo�s study and Milgram�s study

12. Power of the situation(Social influence) Image: Created by James Neill, 15/10/2007 by cropping http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Soc-psy_diagram.jpg.Image: Created by James Neill, 15/10/2007 by cropping http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Soc-psy_diagram.jpg.

13. While personality psychology focuses on individual traits, characteristics, and thoughts, social psychology is focused on situations

14. Principle 2 Culture can be defined as the norms and values that define a society In an ever more multicultural society, there is a need to understand the effect of culture on a person�s behaviour ( more about this later)

15. Principle 3: Humans are social animals. They have a social self Part of this social self is the need to belong Abraham Maslow suggested that the need to belong was a major source of human motivation. He thought that it was one of five basic needs, along with physiological safety self-esteemand selfactualization.[3] These needs are arranged on a hierarchy and must be satisfied in order.

16. Principle 3

17. Principle 3 "The need to belong" is a theory promoted by social psychologists, such as Baumeister and Leary (1995) States that humans experience a need to form and maintain interpersonal relationships and group memberships, This "need to belong" is innate, although the intensity and expression of the desire varies amongst individuals and cultures This need to belong can be seen in Social identity theories ( Tajfel)

18. A car speeds down the road, jumps a red light and screeches to a halt at the end of the road Give 3 explanations/reasons for the driver�s behaviour A student is regularly late or absent from lessons. He submits work late, and disappears from class immediately at the end, thus not able to make appointments to get help from the teacher Give 3 reasons for the student�s behaviour

19. Heider: Na�ve Psychologists Humans rationale and analytical beings who seek to understand human behavior. Heider argued that people are motivated by two primary needs; 1) the need to form a coherent view of the world and 2) the need to gain control over the environment. In this way we are all na�ve-psychologists � using common- sense beliefs to try and understand the social world.

20. Heider believe that people act on the basis of their beliefs, valid or otherwise. Therefore, beliefs must be taken into account in the study of human behavior.

21. According to Heider making causal attributions in a major driving force in human social inference. What is happening in the image below � describe the movement

23. Attribution theory Refers to our tendency to explain the world and to determine the cause of an event or behavior (e.g. why people do what they do).

24. Types of attribution: Situational (external) and dispositional (Internal) According to Heider (1958), we produce attributions (beliefs about the causes of behaviour) based on two sources of information. Internal attributions - based on something within the individual whose behaviour is being observed - their natural character. An internal attribution is any explanation that locates the cause as being internal to the person such as personality, mood, abilities, attitudes, and effort.

25. External attributions (situational) - based on something external to that individual - nothing to do with who they are specifically, it is the situation they are in. An external attribution is any explanation that locates the cause as being external to the person such as the actions of others, the nature of the situation, social pressures, or luck

27. example Freda�s car breaks down on the highway If she believes the breakdown happened because of her ignorance about cars, she is making an internal attribution. If she believes that the breakdown happened because her car is old, she is making an external attribution

28. Understanding WHY Why did Jack win the prize? Why did Susie get arrested? Why was Jason late for his date? Why did Joe break up with Rachel? 28

29. Situational / dispositional Jack won the prize because the competition was easy / he�s smart Susie got arrested because she was in the wrong place at the wrong time / because she�s violent Jason was late for his date because his boss made him work overtime / because he�s disorganised Joe broke up with Rachel because Joe had to move to San Francisco / because he�s selfish 29

30. Situational or Dispositional Hypotheses? A person who is jumping up and down, punching the air, yelling 'Arsenal!' and chanting songs. A person, (adult), skipping down a supermarket aisle, singing loudly about fluffy bunnies and chucking packs of toilet roll in the air. A person who is in the middle of an argument with their partner and stamps their feet and shouts loudly at one point during the argument. A parent who gets angry when they discover their teenaged son smoking, even though they themselves indulged in the habit when they were 14 too.

31. Classic study demontsrating the role of situational over dispositional factors is the Stanford Prison Experiment Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973)

32. Aim Zimbardo et al aimed to show that situational (environmental) rather than dispositional factors (personality) caused negative behaviour.

33. Procedure Participants answered newspaper adverts. From 75 volunteers, 24 were selected. They were judged to be emotionally stable and physically healthy They also had no history of psychiatric problems and had never been in trouble with the police. They were all white, middle class students from across US, who were strangers to each other and were randomly allocated to either prisoner or guard roles. Prisoners signed a consent document which specified that some of their human rights would be suspended and al participants were to receive $15 a day for up to two weeks.

34. Procedure Zimbardo converted a basement corridor in Stanford University Psychology department in to a set of prison cells with a solitary confinement room, a �yard� and an observation screen (through which covert video and audiotape data recoding could take place).

35. Procedure Those allocated to the prisoner role were arrested by the local police outside their houses by surprise. They were charged with a felony, read their rights, searched, handcuffed and taken to a real police station for finger printing and processing. They were then taken blindfold to the basement prison. On arrival they were stripped naked and issued with a loose fitting smock, no underwear.

36. Procedure Their ID number was printed on the front and back they had a chain bolted around one ankle. They wore a nylon stocking to cover their hair, were referred to by number only were allocated to a cell, three to a cell. Prisoners remained in the prison 24 hours a day Followed a schedule of work assignments, rest periods and meal/ toilet visits.

37. Procedure The guards wore military style khaki uniforms and silver reflector sunglasses (making eye contact impossible). They carried clubs, whistles, handcuffs and keys to the cells. There were guards on duty 24 hours a day, each working 8 hour shifts. They had complete control over the prisoners but were given no specific instructions apart from to maintain a reasonable degree of order within the prison told not to use physical violence.

38. results An initial �rebellion� by the prisoners was crushed. After this, they began to react passively as the guards stepped up their aggression. They began to feel helpless and no longer in control of their lives. Every guard at some time or another behaved in an abusive, authoritarian way. Many seemed to really enjoy the new found power and control that went with the uniform. They woke prisoners in the night and got them to clean the toilet with their bare hands. All prisoners� rights were redefined as privileges (going to the toilet, eating and wearing eye-glasses became rewards), and punishment with little or no justification was applied with verbal insults. Some volunteered to do extra hours without pay. The participants appeared to forget that they were only acting. Even when they were unaware of being watched they played their roles.

39. results After less than 36 hours, one prisoner had to be released because of controlled crying, fits of rage, disorganised thinking and severe depression. Three others developed the same symptoms and were released on successive days. Another prisoner developed a rash over his whole body. They became demoralised and apathetic and started to refer to themselves (and others) by their numbers. Zimbardo et al. intended the experiment to run for two weeks. But it was abandoned after just six days because of the prisoners� pathological reactions. Full debriefing and assessment of participants took place, weeks, months and years afterwards.

40. Conclusions This experiment shows that situational factors, not dispositional ones (personality) are more important in shaping behaving. Name the situational variables This means we all are capable of acting out of character when placed in certain situations.

41. Evaluation .

42. Back to attribution theory Refers to our tendency to explain the world and to determine the cause of an event or behavior (e.g. why people do what they do).

43.  Discuss two errors in attributions

44. errors Every day people make causal explanations for their own and others� behavior, as well as for events in general. These explanations, or attributions, are a crucial form of information processing that help explain the situations and behavior occurring in the world around us (Kazdin, 2000). However this information processing is not necessarily accurate. Research has shown that we have tendency to make automatic errors in our attributions. There are two important errors or mistakes we tend make when assigning attributions.

45. 1. Fundamental Attribution Error. � This refers to the tendency to over estimate the internal and underestimate the external factors when explaining the behaviors of others.� For example we are more likely to believe someone drops a cup because they are clumsy, than because the cup was wet

46. Supporting study:The Quiz Game Study Ross et al 1977 Three groups of participants were andomly assigned to; Questioners Contestants Observers

47. Supporting study:The Quiz Game Study Ross et al 1977

48. Supporting study:The Quiz Game Study Ross et al 1977 When the show was over the observers were asked to rank the intelligence of the questioner and contestants Results: Contestants and observers rated questioner more knowledgeable than contestants ( even though they knew the questioner was randomly assigned to the position and made up the questions)

49. Supporting study:The Quiz Game Study Ross et al 1977 Behavior attributed to dispositional qualities Behavior not attributed to participants� role in study Fits the FAE Overestimate dispositional factors Underestimate situational factors

50. Why do we make the FAE This can be due to our tendency to focus on the individual/actor more than their situation, Maybe because we lack adequate background information about the situation (Gilbert & Malone, 1995)? .

51. Is the fundamental attribution error universal ? Is the tendency to focus on the individual/actor than the situation universal ?

52. Let�s begin by looking at people from Eastern and Western cultures Western cultures tends to promote individualism and people can be characterized as independent Eastern cultures tends to promote collectivism and people can be characterized as interdependent Individualism refers to societies that emphasise individuality Collectivism refers to societies that emphasise group relations http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CW7aWKXB5J4&feature=related

53. We�ll look at these concepts in more detail later HOWEVER, much cultural research takes place along these lines Typical individualist societies are USA, Australia, European countries Typical collectivist societies are those across Asia, Africa and South America Most research has focused on China and East Asian countries

54. Cultural differences Westerners are more prone to the FAE Easterners (Collectivist societies) are less prone to the FAE One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Markus and Kitayama (1991) argue that (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone to focus on individual objects rather than contextual details..

55. Your task Outline two studies by Morris & Peng in 1994 Newspaper accounts of murderers Fish swimming Explain how both studies support cultural differences in the FAE

56. Morris & Peng (1994) conducted a content analysis of Chinese and American newspapers covering the same two mass � murder incidents. They found that Chinese accounts were more likely to make report situational factors than American accounts.

57. In another study they got American and Chinese participants to watch cartoons of a group of fish swimming around and asked them to explain the observed movements. The strategy of presenting animated films means that participants do not consciously associate with social or cultural topics. In one type of display, the individual fish swam outside of the group, leaving it ambiguous whether the individual's separation reflected an internal disposition (a leader leading other fish) or pressure from the group (an outcast being chased by other fish). Again Chinese participants explained certain events ( eg. the fish swimming in front of several others) in more situational terms ( eg. the fish is being hunted by others) than the American participants

59. Avoiding the fae To avoid making the fundamental attribution error, one of the best things you can do is �put yourself in the other person's shoes,� as the old saying goes. By thinking about what you might do in the same situation, you might come up with some situational factors for a behavior which could shed more light on the subject. Awareness of this common cognitive bias can help you look for hidden behavioral factors, making you a better observer and better able to read people and situations.

60. What bias/error is happening in thinking here?

61. 2. Self-Serving Bias.� We tend to equate successes to internal factors and failures to external attributes (Miller & Ross, 1975).� You get a Grade 7 in Psychology. You attribute it to intelligence and high motivation dedication. You get a Grade 3 in Psychology ( and fail miserably), � and attribute it to poor teaching, unfairly hard exam paper, biased marking

62. Self serving bias This is seen when people take credit for their successes, attributing them to dispositional factors, and dissociating themselves from their failures

63. Lau and Russel ( 1980 ) found that American football coaches and players tend to credit their wins to internal factors ( being fit, hard work etc) and their failures to external factors ( eg. Injuries, weather etc )

64. Johnson et al, 1964 Participants (psychology students) taught two children (pupils A & B ) how to multiply numbers by 10 and by 20. The teaching was done in two phases via a one-way intercom. The first phase involved teaching the children how to multiply by 10; the second phase, how to multiply by 20. � After each phase, the children�s worksheets were made available to the participants to assess the learning progress of the children. The worksheets were altered in such a way that; Pupil A failed both tasks Pupil B failed the first task, but improved and succeeded in the second task. When asked to explain the results �teachers� attributed the Pupil A�s failure to lack of ability, and Pupil B�s improvement to the their teaching style.

65. Why do we make the self serving bias ? Zuckerman (1979) argued that the effect depends on a desire to maintain self-esteem. If we can attribute our successes to dispositional factors it boosts our self esteem and if we can attribute our failures to factors beyond our control it can protect our self-esteem.

66. This can be seen in the fact that the opposite of the self serving bias is true for those who are depressed, have low self-esteem, or view themselves negatively.� People with depression often attribute failures to their own negative dispositional qualities ( eg. stupidity, uselessness, lack of ability, lack of intelligence ) and successes to external factors such as luck. ( Abramson et al, 1978 )

67. Self serving bias: cultural differences Evidence from cross-cultural studies is consistent with the self esteem interpretation. Heine et al. (1999), for example, found that members of collectivistic cultures (e.g. Japan) are far less likely to strive for positive self-esteem than individuals from individualistic cultures (e.g. USA). .

68. Kashima & Triandis (1986 ) Asked American and Japanese participants to remember slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries. When asked to explain their performance the Americans tended to attribute their success in remembering accurate details to ability, whilst the Japanese in contrast, tended to attribute their failures to lack of ability.

69. The Japanese were found to be less likely to make self-serving attributions than Americans thus demonstrating the link between the self-serving bias and maintenance of self-esteem at least in individualist societies This can be explained by the modesty bias

70. Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies

71. SIT I am a(n)��. (10 things)

72. Write down; A group/social category you belong to and with which you identify with How do you show you identify with that group and what does the group mean to you ? Now think of another group you belong to BUT WITH WHICH you don�t really identify

73. Experiment You are about to be shown 3 screens covered with dots Very quickly - and IN SILENCE estimate the number of DOTS on the screen and write this down

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75. l l l l l l ll l l ll l l l l l l l l ll l l l l l l

76. l l l l ll ll l l ll l l l l l l l l ll l l ll l ll ll

77. answers

78. over estimators list TWO traits you think over estimators have in common then list TWO traits you think under estimators have in common

79. under estimators list TWO traits you think under estimators have in common then list TWO traits you think over estimators have in common

80. Look at your answers�. both groups note + for each positive trait or - for each negative trait Mark your slip O or U Put your list in the O or U heap

81. We will look at our results at the end of the session �...

82. TAJFEL (1970) believed it was very easy to form in-groups, mere self � categorisation of any kind can lead to group formation. The minimal group studies (ie. Minimum criteria needed to form a group) What does it take to make you believe you are a member of a group?

83. The minimal group studies (Tajfel, 197)

84. Experiment was in 2 parts: Part 1The first part was to establish an intergroup categorisation.  They were told that Tajfel was investigating visual judgements 40 clusters of dots flashed onto a screen The boys asked to estimate how many dots they had seen each time Experimenters then �pretended� to judge the boys answers Boys believed they had been divided into 2 groups �Underestimators� and �Overestimators�

85. Part 2: The second part was to assess the effects of this categorisation on intergroup behaviour The boys were told they would undertake a task in which they would be giving points to others which could be converted into real money. They would not know the identity of the individuals to whom they were assigning these points.

86. In-group choices � (involved the participant choosing between two participants who were in their group) Out -group choices � ( involved the participant choosing between two participants who were in the other group ) *Inter- group choices � (involved the participant choosing between one participant from their own group and one participant from the other group)

87. ( results)

88.

89. But looked what happened by the third set�..

90. Tajfel found that with the inter-group choice participants overwhelmingly discriminated in favour of their group by allocating the highest points (eg.7) to their own group and the lowest (eg.1) to the other group.

91. Conclusion Out-group discrimination is very easy to trigger. Simply classifying participants as part of one group or another was enough to be the case. In both of Tajfel�s studies discrimination was produced even though the groupings could be described as �minimal�

92. Did the over estimators give more -s to under estimators and vice versa? Our experiment

93. Evaluation of the Minimal Group Studies

94. These �Minimal Group� experiments supports Tajfel�s ( 1971) Social Identity theory the view that an individual�s sense of self esteem is derived from being part of a social group

95. Social Identity theory

97. Categorisation : The first is our tendency to categorise individuals, including ourselves into groups. ( eg. white, middle-class male). Group identity is as important as our unique, personal identity and we define ourselves in terms of our group membership. This leads to categorization of the world into �them� and �us�

98. Identification: We also identify with certain groups (our in-groups). Having this social identity enhances our self-esteem. The lower our self esteem the stronger the identification with the group. Tajfel�s refers to this as in-group bias or favouritism.

99. Comparison: We also enhance the sense of identity by making comparisons with other groups ( known as out-groups). Having a positive social identity or positive distinctiveness means drawing favourable comparisons with other relevant groups.

100. But what happens if those comparisons aren�t favorable, and the in-group has a negative social identity? A negative social identity does not confer good self esteem

101. Tajfel argued that this negative identity could lead to hostility between groups ( prejudice, discrimination, etc ) ( social identity theory was mainly developed to explain negative relations/behaviours) This depends on; permeability and legitimacy.

102. Permeability refers to the opportunity to move from one group to another - for example, a smoker could give up smoking and become a non-smoker. Sometimes, however, groups have less permeable boundaries and cannot be easily left or joined. For example, a woman cannot simply decide to stop being woman and become a man, an African-American can�t become a European-American.

103. If permeability is low, that is we do not believe that we have the ability to move from one group to another more valued group, we are likely to identify with that group and move towards social change ( social change can involve social creativity, social competition or social action)

104. Legitimacy Legitimacy refers to the fairness of group inequalities. For example doctors on a mental ward have higher status ( and therefore more privileges, opportunities, power etc) than patients on a mental ward. Prison wardens will have higher status than prisoners - but these inequalities may be perceived as legitimate, and the positions perceived as fixed and stable.

105. However if members of a group believe that the inequalities between groups are unfair ( eg. Blacks in apartheid South Africa ) cognitive alternatives may occur. Cognitive alternatives occur when members of a lower status group become aware of ways in which social relations could be restructured (such as instability of the high-status group) in order to bring about social change. As cognitive alternatives become available the prediction is that there will be a challenge to authority. The challenge ( social competition and action ) may be in the form of discrimination, revolution, strikes, boycotts, riots etc

106. If no cognitive alternatives arise low-status groups may employ social creativity ( a non-destructive form of social change) such as positive re-evaluation of in-group, finding new dimensions of comparision ( eg. parts of the Asian world may consider themselves technologically inferior to the West, but morally superior).

109. Social Identity theory Further support for this theory comes from Reicher & Haslam ( 2006) Recall Zimbardo�s prison experiment ? Zimbardo explained the rebellion as; 1. Situational rather than dispositional ( the environment, not personality) 2. Social roles have a much more powerful influence over our behaviour than we tend to believe 3.He also said �group identity� can take over our individual identity and we may then lose our sense of personal responsibility in a process called �deindividuation�

110. Reicher & Haslam replicated this experiment in 2006 They argued that a Social Identity approach better explains the breakdown in relations It wasn�t a result of social roles and loss of identity in a group that led to rebellion It was strength of identification with the group that forces action This study supports Social Identity theory

111. aims Aims To repeat Zimbardo in an ethical way. To investigate interactions between two groups of unequal power To analyse conditions that lead individuals to identify with their group

112. Participants 332 Male volunteers - newspaper ads 15 were selected using; a) psychometric tests to make sure they were well-balanced and mentally healthy b) a full weekend assessment by clincal psychologists. c) medical and character references and police checks. 15 chosen for range of age, social class, ethnicity Divided into 5 groups of 3 matched for personality. 1 was randomly selected to be a guard and the other two to be prisoners.

113. How did they ensure the study was ethical? Passed BPS ethics committee Medical backgrounds checked Consent obtained Monitored by clinical psychologists Paramedic always on duty Security guards present Monitored by ethics committee who could stop experiment at any time

114. a)guard Induction �The guards were invited to a hotel on the evening before the start and were told that their job was to ensure that the programme ran smoothly. There were sanctions to use on prisoners who were uncooperative for example an isolation cell and a bread-and-water diet, but they could not use physical violence. They also could give rewards of snacks and cigarettes. The guards had keys to the cells; they had an upper-level �guards� station� with a surveillance system. They had a dress code of shirt and tie and enjoyed better food and living conditions than the prisoners.

115. b) Prisoner induction 3 man cells Hair shaved on arrival Uniform of T shirt with 3 digit number and loose trousers and sandals Arrived one at a time Told nothing accept no violence allowed List of rules and rights posted on wall

116. How did they measure behaviour? Video / audio recordings Daily psychometric tests (for depression, self esteem, compliance with rules and for group identification) Cortisol levels (urine & saliva) to measure stress

117. Manipulation of the variables � IV . a) The permeability of roles. Although guards were told that they had been selected on various criteria, participants were told the tests were not always reliable thus that prisoners could be promoted to guards on day 3. Thus at the outset they all believed it was possible to change roles. After day 3 the roles were fixed, ie impermeable.

118. IV b) Legitimacy of roles: On day 3 prisoners were told that there were really no differences between prisoners and guards, but that it was impractical to reassign roles thus causing the perception that group differences were not legitimate but random. ( this planned intervention did not happen)

119. IV c) Cognitive alternatives: On the 4th day, a new prisoner, chosen because of his background as a Trade Union official, was introduced to provide the skills required to organise �collective action�.

120. DV Social variables: social identification, awareness of alternatives, Organisational variables: compliance with the rules Clinical variables: depression, stress These variables were measured in three ways Video and audio surveillance Daily psychometric testing - self reports Daily saliva swabs

121. Results � Day 1 & 2 The guards did not develop a group identity, and did not act collectively. Some were reluctant to exercise power from the beginning - some gave prisoners their food; they disagreed over how to treat the prisoners; they became more depressed as the experiment continued. The prisoners also lacked a social identity initially and acted individually in the hope of being promoted. During the first two days the guards were able to manage the group because the prisoners lacked a group identity.

122. Results � day 3 & 4 However after the promotion of day 3, the prisoners had greater social identification ( impermeability). The prisoners started challenging the authority of the guards. The planned intervention ( legitimacy IV) did not happen as it was felt there was enough disorder in the prison

124. results � day 5 A cognitive alternative was introduced. A trade unionist ( a skilled negotiator who could help restructure relations ) was brought in. The trade unionist set up a forum between prisoners and guards. the prisoners became more positive and empowered

125. Results � day 6 Prisoners broke out of cells and the regime of the guards was ended, partly due to the new prisoner. All the participants decided to continue as a self-governing �commune� which worked effectively for one day

126. Results � day 7 Some people were not happy with the commune and wanted to reinstate the old system, harsher but with new guards.

127. Results � day 8 The researchers decided to end the study as it was set to break ethical guidelines.

128. conclusions Social Identity theory is in part supported. Impermeability ( no more chances of promotion) and cognitive alternatives did lead to stronger group identification and collective action ( legitimacy as an IV wasn�t tested).

129. conclusion However, beyond SIT they also concluded that it�s not just strong identification with a group that leads to tyranny, but the breakdown of groups, and powerlessness, that create the conditions for tyranny - if the researchers had not stepped in the �new guards� were likely to introduce a more tyrannical regime. Failing groups create problems for their own members and when groups cannot create an effective system they will accept extreme solutions proposed by others � eg. when the commune broke down the others did not resist the move by some to create �new guards�.

130. evaluation 1. The role of television: it has been argued that the presence of the TV cameras will have led to the participants acting unnaturally, although the researchers suggest that it would be impossible for the participants �act up� for nine days, plus it is usual for people to be under constant surveillance of others in their daily lives.

131. evaluation 2. Ecological validity: Critics have suggested that the study failed to provide a real situation whereby guards failed to assert their authority because the situation was not engaging and also because they had no power to assert.

132. evaluation 3. Demand characteristics � were possible as the participants appeared to know about previous psychological research and the guards were wary of being seen as authoritarian and taking power so may have acted deliberately not to be seen as aggressive

133. evaluation 4. The qualitative nature of much data may have led to observer / researcher bias � 5. Although the ethical guidelines were stringently adhered to there no was confidentiality, and there was still potential for harm.

134. Remember� Reicher & Haslam can be used to support Tajfel�s Social Identity theory

135. evaluation 4. The qualitative nature of much data may have led to observer / researcher bias � 5. Although the ethical guidelines were stringently adhered to there no was confidentiality, and there was still potential for harm.

136. Reicher & HaslamRethinking the psychology of tyranny:

137. Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.

138. Social norms Are sets of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave Using your manners Appropriate dress Waiting in � line / queues Shaking hands when you meet someone

139. How does a society or culture pass on its norms to individuals within the group ?

140. Bandura�s Social Learning Theory social behaviours are learnt through the observing and replicating of behaviours seen in others ( a model )

141. It refers mainly (but not exclusively) to the learning of social and moral behaviours after observing and imitating a model Although social learning can take place at any stage in life, it is thought to be particularly important during childhood, particularly as authority becomes important.

143. However not all social learning is positive. Alcohol and other drug use often begins when children and teenagers imitate people they admire.

144. Vicarious reinforcement An observer's behavior can also be affected by the positive or negative consequences of a model's behavior. So we not only watch what people do, but we watch what happens when they do things. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

145. Required conditions Bandura gave four conditions required for a person to successfully model the behaviour of someone else:

146. Attention Attention is the first component of observational learning. Individuals cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to the significant features of the modeled behavior. Attention can be influenced by the model�s distinctiveness, attractiveness, competence or power

147. Retention The observer must store information about the model�s behavior in memory. Retention includes symbolic coding, mental images and cognitive organization. The ability to retrieve information later and act on it is vital to social learning.

148. Retention The observer must store information about the model�s behavior in memory. Retention includes symbolic coding, mental images and cognitive organization. The ability to retrieve information later and act on it is vital to social learning.

149. Reproduction Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. An observer must be physically and cognitively capable of reproducing the behavior. Imitation and practice leads to improvement of the learnt behavior.

150. Motivation Finally in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Motivation refers to reinforcement which can be direct ( such as praise ) or indirect ( such as seeing another child praised) � known as vicarious reinforcement.

151. Example: Learning to play football A boy may see his friends playing the game (attention) and then memorises this. Later on at school he is joining in a game (reproduces) and a teacher comments on how good he is (motivation).

152. Well known study into the behaviour �aggression� Is it learnt or innate ? ( nature v nurture )

153. Bandura Bobo doll studies ( 1961 ) aim To see whether children would imitate aggression modeled by an adult To see if children were more likely to imitate same-sex models

154. participants 72 participants ( 36 boys, 36 girls) aged 3 � 6 yrs Three conditions to the experiment 1. Group observing aggressive model 2. Group observing non-aggressive model 3. Control group � no model observed

155. Aggressive model condition

156. design Matched pairs design Ie. Children were judged/ observed prior to the study and rated for aggressive behaviour

157. Procedure: stage 1 Children were tested individually Children were taken to experimental room In the aggressive condition a �model� came in and started playing aggressively with the inflatable doll In the non-aggressive condition the model played with the toys in a quiet manner

158. Stage 2 Child was taken from experimental room to another games room The child was subjected to �mild aggressive arousal� by being told they couldn�t play with the toys in the room

159. Stage 3 Child then taken to a third room where s/he was told they could play with any toys They was a variety of aggressive and non-aggressive toys Child was kept in this room for 20mins They were observed through a one-way mirror

160. results 1.Children in the aggressive model condition made more aggressive responses than the children in the non-aggressive condition 2. Boys made more aggressive responses than girls 3. Boys in the aggressive model showed more aggressive responses if the model was male rather than female 4. Girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male but more verbal aggressive responses than if the model was female.

161. Vicarious reinforcement A later study investigated the effects of vicarious reinforcement - 3 groups of children watched a film in which a child in a playroom behaved aggressively (e.g., hit, kick, yell) towards a "bobo doll." The film had three different endings. One group of children saw the child praised for his behavior; a second group saw the child reprimanded ( punished ) for his actions; a third group (the control) group saw a film with the child simply walking out of the room ( no consequences). Children were then allowed into the playroom and actions of aggression were noted. Results showed that levels of aggression were highest amongst group one and three.

162. Discussion of bobo doll studies See textbook p. 112 Draw out as many evaluative comments as you can

163. Evaluation of study Supports social learning theory Ecological validity Ethical issues ? Methodological issues: 1. matched pairs design based on subjective judgements 2. Aggressive behaviour by adult model not standardised

164. Application of social learning theory Importance of appropriate adult role models Helped us understand aggression and how the media/film industry might contribute to violence in society. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is widely cited in psychology as a demonstration of social learning showing that children are more likely to engage in violent play after watching an adult do the same Supported by other studies eg Huemann and Eron ( 1986), Kimball and Zabrack ( 1986 )

165. Challenge to research � St Helena natural experiment Population 7,601 (2008) African descent 50%, white 25%, Chinese 25%� Weak economy � some tourism, coffee and liquor exports Mainly public sector economy and sustained by financial aid from UK

166. Read the St Helena study Why do you think this study seems to contradict other research finding ?

167. Answer these questions What was the research method used ? Briefly describe the procedure What is a content analysis ? A qualitative research method in which qualitative material ( media) is quantitatively analysed eg. By theme alWhat were the results ? How might you explain the results ?

168. Evaluation of social learning theory Although it can explain some quite complex behavior it cannot adequately account for how we develop a whole range of behavior including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of cognitive control over our behavior Just because we have had experiences of violence does not mean we have to reproduce such behavior.

169. Social Cognitive theory Bandura modified his theory and in I986 renamed his SLT, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), better description of how we operate cognitively on our social experiences and how these cognitions then influence behavior and development. �reciprocal determinism�

170. Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behaviour

171. Stereotypes have been defined as �widely shared assumptions about the personalities, attitudes and behavior of people based on group membership ( Hogg & Vaughan, 1995)

172. " Heaven is where the police are British, the cooks are Chinese, the mechanics are German, the lovers are Italian and it is all organised by the Swiss. Hell is where the police are Chinese, the cooks are English, the mechanics are French, the lovers are Swiss, and it is all organised by the Italians ".

173. Positive effects People rely on stereotypes everyday to help them function in society. To allow people to quickly process new information about an event or person. To organize people�s past experiences. To meaningfully assess differences between individuals and groups. To make predictions about other people�s behavior.

174. Negative effects Negative: impede communication Cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true (for any individual) when it actually may not be. Continued use of the stereotype reinforces the belief. Can become a �self-fulfilling prophecy� for the person stereotyped. Weaken our ability to think critically. .Serve as a major source of disinformation about others,(especially women and minorities). May easily conceal or feed into prejudice, racism, sexism, and other forms of bigotry.

175. How are stereotypes formed ?  Grain of truth� hypothesis ( Campbell, 1967 ) The theory that an experience with an individual from a group will then be generalised to the group

176. Grain of truth According to Campbell ( 1967 ) stereotypes originate from two major sources � a) a person�s experience with another person or group, and b) the communication of those experiences are generalized to others by what he referred to as the gatekeepers � parents, media etc who pass on experiences.

177. So for example the stereotype of women being bad drivers must have been experience at one time and that experience passed on. The process of communication would establish the stereotype as a truism in many people�s minds. Stereotypes therefore originate in experience and must contain at least a �grain of truth;.

178. Grain of truth One criticism however of this theory is that it assumes that the person having the original experience made a perfectly logical inference, but we know errors in attribution are common.

179. 2, Illusory Correlation Illusory Correlation ( Hamilton & Gifford, 1976 ) A tendency to perceive a relationship between two variables where none actually exists.

180. Example of Illusory correlations Some travellers ( Gypsies ) move into town and the crime rate goes up. You assume the travellers are responsible

181. Illusory Correlation in relation to stereotype formation, the tendency to to over-estimate the association between ( ie. correlation ) between negative characteristics and minority group membership

182. Complete illusory correlation activity

183. Hamilton and Gifford argue that stereotypes form because of our tendency to see a relationship between two variables even when there is none, particular a relationship between minority groups and negative behaviours.

184. Hamilton and Gifford ( 1976) In a classic experiment they asked participants to read desirable and undesirable trait adjectives about the members of two groups ( 26 statements about people in Group A and 13 statements about people in Group B ). Although the number of statements did differ ( there were twice as many statements about Group A people than Group B ) �.. there was an even distribution of desirable and undesirable statements about each group.

185. Afterwards, participants completed group�trait memory and evaluative judgment tasks. There was no reason to judge Group B, as any more likely to engage in undesirable behaviors than Group A. Yet results showed that participants over-estimated the frequency of undesirable behaviours belonging to Group B

186. Wegner and Vallacher ( 1976 ) have argued that the illusory correlation is similar to the fundamental attribution error. In the same way that other people�s behavior tends to be explained in dispositional rather than situational terms, rare/undesirable behavior can be explained by attributing it to a minority group ( McIlveen & Gross, p. 15 ).

187. In other words people tend to over-estimate the association between ( ie. correlation ) between negative characteristics and minority group membership. eg. suppose the proportion of African Americans versus the proportion of European Americans who commit crimes are the actually the same. Nevertheless because fewer residents of the US are African American, people may overestimate the proportion of African Americans who commit crimes relative to the proportion of European Americans who do so ( O Greene et al, p. 341 ).

188. One explanation for this phenomena involves the tendency for distinctive information to be highly accessible. At the time this idea was put forward, seeing someone from a minority ethnic group and seeing someone being mugged for example were both rare, so because minority group members are by definition more uncommon, it is more noticeable when we encounter them. Furthermore undesirable behavior is also rare, and therefore more distinctive/noticeable. Thus a minority group member performing an undesirable act constitutes a doubly distinctive event that is especially memorable

189. Confirmation bias Once illusory correlations are made people tend to seek out or remember information that supports this relationship. This is known at the confirmation bias. Generally, this means that people tend to overlook information that contradicts what they already believe. Confirmation bias makes stereotypical thinking resistant to change ( Crane, p. 109 )

190. The problem with this explanation of course, is that many people hold this kind of stereotype who have never witnessed such kind of events as outlined above, so at best it can only provide a partial explanation ( Cox, p. 195 ).

191. Furthermore research into stereotypes is difficult to carry out. Often, social desirability is a confounding variable in such research. The desire for political correctness may influence self report measures ( Crane, p. 110).

192. Effects of stereotypes on behaviour Although stereotypes help us to simplify our social world, stereotypes are usually negative and can cause serious problems ( Campbell ( 1967). They can overestimate the differences between groups and can distort reality. They are seldom questioned and can therefore be used to justify hostility and discrimination. One effect is the stereotype threat

193. What is a stereotype threat Stereotype threat refers to being at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group��� (Steele & Aronson, 1995).

194. Steele & Aronson ( 1995 ) Their Experiment involved African American and White college students who took a difficult test using items from an aptitude test (American GRE Verbal exam) under one of two conditions. In the stereotype threat condition, students were told that their performance on the test would be a good indicator of their underlying intellectual abilities. In the non-threat condition, they were told that the test was simply a problem solving exercise and was not diagnostic of ability.

195. � Performance was compared in the two conditions and results showed that African American participants performed less well than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition, but in the non-threat condition their performance equaled that of their white counterparts.

196. Stereotype threat can affect everybody Originally, Steele and Aronson applied their theory to understand why African Americans perform more poorly on academic tests. But over the years stereotype threat theory has been applied to other situations. For instance, stereotype threat has been found to affect women (on tests of stereotypically �male� subjects, like maths) and the elderly (on tests of memory).

197. Stereotype Threat�(Shih, Pittinsky, and Ambady, 1999) � Asian women were subtly reminded (with a questionnaire) of either their Asian identity or their female identity prior to taking a difficult math test Women reminded of their Asianness performed better than the control group Women reminded of their female identity performed worse than the control group

198. Spotlight anxiety According to Steele, stereotype threat generates �spotlight anxiety� which causes emotional distress and �vigilant worry� that may undermine performance. Students worry that their future may be compromised by society�s perception and treatment of their group so they do not focus their full attention on the test questions.

199. Social influence Compliance Conformity Discuss the use of compliance techniques Evaluate research on conformity to group norms Discuss factors influencing conformity

200. Social influence What is meant by the term SOCIAL INFLUENCE? It�s the study of how thoughts, feelings and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the presence of others, whether that presence is actual or imagined. We are all influenced by social influences, some of which we�re aware of and some of which we�re not. Sometimes we give way to this social influence to �fit in� with those around us and sometimes we do it because we�re not sure of the right way to think or act so we use others as a source of information.

201. What is compliance?

202. Arthur and John Walker: Compliance in practice Read pp337-338 from Horowitz and Bordens (1995) What do you think about Arthur�s behaviour/ How and why did he let this happen? Can you think of any other examples where a similar sequence of stages are used to gain compliance?

203. Compliance, a type of conformity, can be defined as the result of direct pressure to respond to a request. Aronson et al. (2007) defines compliance as �a form of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another�. Social Psychologists have been interested in identifying factors that increase or decrease compliance to direct requests. Several compliance techniques have been identified by Robert Cialdini. Some of the techniques rely on basic processes ( eg. self perception, dissonance and heuristics); others rely on social norms implying that compliance is the � proper� response. You may recognize some of these techniques because they may have been used to gain your compliance.

204. 3 compliance techniques based on Cialdini�s 6 factors of compliance Foot-in-the -door Door-in-the-face Low-balling

205. The foot-in-the-door technique A compliance technique whereby a small request is made first and is then followed up with a larger one Example - If asked to sign a petition first then more likely to comply when next asked to make a donation Example - A person in the street asks me directions, which I give. They then ask me to walk a little way with them to make sure they don't get lost. In the end, I take them all the way to their destination

206. Dickerson et al ( 1992 ) Researchers wanted to see if they could get university students to conserve water First they asked students to sign a poster that said � Take shorter showers. If I can do it so can you� Then they asked them to take a survey designed to make them think about their own water usage. Their shower times were then monitored Students who signed the poster and then completed the survey had significantly shorter shower times on average than across the dormitories as a whole

207. Sherman (1980) called residents in Indiana (USA) and asked them if, hypothetically, they would volunteer to spend 3 hours collecting for the American Cancer Society. Three days later, a second experimenter called the same people and actually requested help for this organization. Of those responding to the earlier request, 31% agreed to help. This is much higher than the 4% of a similar group of people who volunteered to help when approached directly.

208. Why it works: Self Perception Theory, Bem, (1972) Originally proposed by Bem (see Bern, 1972, for a review), self-perception theory offers a view of the way people come to know their internal states. In Bern's terms, people come to know their internal states �partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior� In this view, people often do not know their attitudes by direct introspection, but rather examine their own behavior. To use one of Bem's examples, 'since I eat brown bread then I must like brown bread. A person who is crying may infer that he or she is sad. A person who attends a rally for a particular political candidate may infer that he or she has a positive attitude toward that candidate

209. People decide on their own attitudes and feelings from watching themselves behave in various situations. This is particularly true when internal cues are so weak or confusing they effectively put the person in the same position as an external observer. Self-Perception Theory provides an alternative explanation for cognitive dissonance effects. For example Festinger and Carlsmith's experiment where people were paid $1 or $20 to lie. Cognitive dissonance says that people felt bad about lying for $1 because they could not justify the act. Self-perception takes an 'observer's view, concluding that those who were paid $1 must have really enjoyed it (because $1 does not justify the act) whilst those who were paid $20 were just doing it for the money

210. SO, with regards FITD technique to when an individual complies a first time, she perceives herself to be helpful. In an effort to maintain consistency with the first impression and with her own self-perception she is likely to comply a second time

211. comparison Cognitive dissonance theory states that people experience a "negative drive state" called "dissonance" which they seek to relieve. Self perception theory states people simply infer their attitudes from their own behavior in the same way that an outside observer might. Self-perception theory is a special case of attribution theory.

212. Low-balling technique Two step technique in which the persuader secures agreement with request but then reveals a hidden cost A family books a package holiday and then are told that there are surcharges. They pay these without question.

213. The 7a.m. Start, Cialdini et al (1978) Control group: When asked whether they would participate in a psychology experiment that started at 7 am most Pps refused Experimental group: When asked whether they would participate in an psychology experiment, most Pps agreed but they weren�t told a time; later they were told that it started at 7 am and given the chance to drop out if they wanted, On the day of the experiment 95% turned up as promised for the 7am appointment

214. Cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling( mental conflict) caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them.

215. Inducing CD � 1. Racial stereotyping is a major problem in a country like Malaysia 2. Killing and torturing animals is an act of cruelty 3. Smoking is anti-social and unhealthy 4. Plastic bag wastage is damaging to the environment

216. YES / NO � 1. I often challenge racial stereotypes when I hear them 2. I avoid eating meat and using products that have been tested on animals 3. I have never and would never smoke 4. I always refuse plastic bags in shops

217. Why does low-balling work: Cognitive dissonance Belief Didn�t really need the car but it�s a good deal Challenge to belief Price is no longer a good deal. Cognitive dissonance Change our belief We really need the car

218. Boring task experiment ( 1959 ) In this experiment all participants were required to do what all would agree was a boring task and then to tell another subject (who was actually a confederate of the experimenter) that the task was exciting. Half of the subjects were paid $1 to do this and half were paid $20 (quite a bit of money in the 1950s). Following this, all subjects were asked to rate how much they liked the boring task. This latter measure served as the experimental criterion/the dependent measure. Although they didn�t have to lie in the last part of the experiment. The $1 group rated the task as more interesting than the $20 group. Why ? Because they experienced dissonance between the task being boring and then lying about it being interesting, so they shiffted/changed their belief.

219. Cognitive dissonance The Fox and the Grapes is a fable attributed to Aesop. One hot summer's day a Fox was strolling through an orchard till he came to a bunch of Grapes just ripening on a vine which had been trained over a lofty branch. "Just the thing to quench my thirst," quoth he. Drawing back a few paces, he took a run and a jump, and just missed the bunch. Turning round again with a One, Two, Three, he jumped up, but with no greater success. Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked away with his nose in the air, saying: "I am sure they are sour." It is easy to despise what you cannot get

220. Festinger first developed this theory in the 1950s to explain how members of a cult who were persuaded by their leader, a certain Mrs Keech, that the earth was going to be destroyed on 21st December and that they alone were going to be rescued by aliens, actually increased their commitment to the cult when this did not happen (Festinger himself had infiltrated the cult, and would have been very surprised to meet little green men). The dissonance of the thought of being so stupid was so great that instead they revised their beliefs to meet with obvious facts: that the aliens had, through their concern for the cult, saved the world instead.

221. Door-in-the-face technique A compliance technique in which a large request is made first and is then followed up by a small one Example - someone is asked to do 5 hours voluntary work every week for a charity, but they decline. Then they are asked instead, of committing to all this volunteering time, to just donate a small amount of money. Compared to the time commitment, this request seems much more acceptable.

222. Cialdini et al (1975) Control Group 1: Pps were approached and asked to escort a group of juvenile delinquents to the zoo; most refused. Control Group 2: Pps were approached and asked to spend 2 hours per week as a peer counsellor to juvenile delinquent children for around 2 years; again most said no Experimental Group (the DITF): asked to be peer counsellors and then asked to escort children to the zoo. RESULTS Group 1: Large request only: 0% Group 2: Small request only: 25% DITF group: 50% compliance

223. Norm of reciprocity a powerful social norm that dictates that we treat others as they have treated us.[1 We should reciprocate in kind the good things done for us, whether it is returning benefits for benefits or concessions for concessions. The norm of reciprocity is often used as a compliance strategy in social influence Common techniques are used in advertising and other propaganda that build off of the norm of reciprocity. A small gift (i.e. a perfume sample) is extended with the expectation that the recipient will feel an obligation to reciprocate this kindness in some way (i.e. by buying a bottle of the perfume).

224. example Solicitor suggests high fees for his services but backs off when we disagree He then comes back with a smaller quote We then feel pressure to reciprocate, he�s done us a favour by reducing fees, and we should return the favour by agreeing to the new fees

225. Conformity Evaluate research on conformity to group norms Discuss factors influencing conformity

226. conformity Conformity is the tendency to adjust one�s feelings, thoughts and behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular group For example �peer pressure� is often used to describe conformity in schools

227. Cognitive dissonance can occur in many areas of life, but it is particularly evident in situations where an individual's behavior conflicts with beliefs that are integral to his or her self-identity. For example, consider a situation in which a woman who values financial security is in a relationship with a man who is financially irresponsible. The conflict: It is important for her to be financially secure. She is dating a man who is financially unstable. In order to reduce this dissonance between belief and behavior, she can either leave the relationship or reduce her emphasis on financial security. In the case of the second option, dissonance could be further minimized by emphasizing the positive qualities of her significant other rather than focusing on his perceived flaws.

230. Sherif ( 1935)Autokineticeffect

231. Sherif - results

232. Criticism of Sherif�s work : The �group� used consisted of three people. They may not have considered themselves to be a group. There was no right or wrong answer, it was an ambiguous task, and Sherif told them that he was going to move the light, so they were more likely to change their minds anyway.

233. Which line is the same as the first line A,B or C ?

234. Which line is the same as the first line � A,B or c ?

235. Which line is the same as the first line � A,B or C ?Deliberately get this one wrong and say B

236. Asch ( 1951 ) Asch argued however that Sherif�s study did not demonstrate conformity the convergence of judgements found in Sherif�s study was attributable to the ambiguity of the situation. Asch ( 1951 ) devised an experiment using a simple, unambiguous task with no doubt about the correct answer.

237. Asch ( 1951 ) I n a research study of conformity to group pressure Will someone go along with an answer that is obviously wrong? What is more important � being right or fitting in? http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=wGfJUi90Pxc http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=R6LH10-3H8k

238. Asch ( 1951 ) procedure Participants were shown a pair of cards, one with a 'standard' line drawn on it, the other illustrating three 'comparison' lines of different lengths.

239. procedure Participants had to choose which of the comparison lines was the same length as the standard line. Unknown to the naive participants, they were seated at a table with groups of 7-9 accomplices of the experimenter.

242. Asch: results The accomplices unanimously gave incorrect answers on 12 critical trials out of the 18. The naive participants were always last but one to state their answers. Results were; The rate of conformity was 32% 74% conformed at least once. However, 25% never conformed

243. debriefing During the debriefing after the experiment Asch asked the participants how they felt. All reported experiencing some degree of self doubt but agreed with the confederate because they did not want to be appear to be against the group. Some argue that this could also be explained in terms of the �need to belong� � the need to be part of the group is stronger than the desire to give

244. Evaluating asch

245. American culture Some critics thought the high levels of conformity found by Asch were a reflection of American, 1950's culture It tells us more about the historical and cultural climate of the USA in the 1950�s than then they do about the phenomena of conformity.

246. McCarthyism In the 1950�s America was very conservative, involved in an anti-communist witch-hunt ( which became known as Mccarthyism) against anyone who was thought to hold sympathetic left-wing views Conformity to American values was expected. Support for this comes from studies in the 1970s and 1980s that show lower conformity rates

247. Perrin & Spenser ( 1983 ) Perrin & Spenser suggested that the Asch effect was a "child of its time". They carried out an exact replication of the original Asch experiment using engineering, mathematics and chemistry students as subjects. The results were clear-cut: on only one out of 396 trials did an observer join the erroneous majority. They argue that a cultural change has taken place in the value placed on conformity and obedience and in the position of students. In America in the 1950s students were unobtrusive members of society whereas now they occupy a free questioning role.

248. Evaluation of Perrin & Spenser However one problem in comparing these studies is that sometimes very different types of participants are used. Perrin & Spencer used science and engineering students who might be expected to be more independent by training when it came to making perceptual judgements

249. Factors affecting conformity In what way does Group size affect conformity ? How doe unanimity affect conformity ? Which countries showed a) higher levels of conformity ? b) lower levels of conformity How might you explain these differences ?

250. Minority influence the dissenting opinions of a minority can affect conformity levels . Adding just one person who shares the individual�s judgment makes it much more likely that the participant will resist the pressure to conform from the majority. Indeed this minority could go further than mere resistance and actively seek to change the majority�s viewpoint.

251. Minority influence: Moscovici & Lage 1976 In a study carried out by Moscovici & Lage ( 1976 ) involving 4 participants and two confederates, the minority of two confederates described a blue-green colour as green. They found that the minority ( of confederates ) was able to influence about 32% of the participants to make at least one incorrect judgment about the colour of slides they were shown. Furthermore the participants continued to give their incorrect responses even after the two confederates had left the experiment

252. How can minority opinions have such influence on the majority ? Hogg & Vaughan ( 1995 ) argue that some of the reasons could be; Dissenting opinions produce uncertainty and doubt Such opinions convey the existence of an alternative, coherent point of view Consistency of the opinion shows there is a commitment to the alternative view

253. Explanations for conformity Informational versus normative influence In looking for explanations of the findings of research on conformity behaviour, a popular theory was proposed by Deutsch and Gerrard ( 1955 ) the dual process theory in which they differentiated between informational and normative influence

254. Informational influence Informational influence is based on the need for certainty. If information ( eg. what other people are doing ) conflicts with our own beliefs about an event or situation, we may experience cognitive dissonance. To resolve the conflict we conform to what others are doing on the assumption that others (majority ) possess more knowledge about the situation (social proof). In the Sherif study the task was ambiguous and so individuals used the majority as an aid to reaching a decision.

255. Normative influence Normative influence is based on our nature as social animals, with the need to belong and be accepted. In order to avoid rejection and ridicule and to gain social approval we learn to conform to rules of other people. In the Asch study most participants weren�t unsure about the answer, but they if they went with their own answer they risked ridicule and rejection from the majority

257. Define the terms �culture� and �cultural norms� Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour Using one or more examples, explain �emic� and �etic� terms

258. How do you define culture ? Write out some key features of your own culture No single generally accepted definition

259. � a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviours� ( Matsumoto, 2004 ) A set of attitudes, behaviours and symbols shared by a large group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next ( Shiraev and Levy, 2004)

260. Culture is not a unitary concept

261. Two levels of culture There are two levels of culture; Surface culture Deep culture

262. Surface culture Hair, fashion, music, food etc Can be externally influenced Rapidly changes

263. Deep culture Attitudes Beliefs Values Philosophies Less externally influenced Not likely to change

264. Objective and subjective aspects 1. tangible features eg. food 2. subjective features eg, beliefs

265. Culture is multi-layered There are cultures within cultures

266. Variations and generalisations Culture alone cannot explain behaviour Aspects of cultures can

267. Culture is dynamic

268. 3-268 Cultural norms Cultures have their own norms Cultural norms are behaviour patterns that are typical of specific groups They are often passed down from generation to generation by observational learning by the group�s gatekeeper � parents, teacher, religious leaders etc These may differ from dominant cultures

269. Example of Cultural norms Homosexuality is illegal in many parts of the world However, amongst the Eastbay people in Melanesia it is actively encouraged 10 to 20% of Melanesian societies require all men to participate in homosexual as well as heterosexual sex to educate them in sexual techniques (reviewed in Herdt 1984a).

270. Another example of a cultural norm is Female circumsion

271. Facts About FGM Involves removal of some or all female external genitalia. Also known as �female circumcision� Estimated 150 million women living today have undergone this ritual (2-3 million girls per year) Widely practiced in Africa, as well as among Muslim communities in Malaysia, and some areas of the Middle East, India, and Pakistan. Performed on girls an average of 7-10 years old Ancient practice that predates Islam and was also practiced by Christians Causes widespread trauma, death, and infant mortality (estimated 1/3 of all women in Somalia die as a result of FGM�nearly 100% of all women in that country undergo the ritual)

272. Disturbing photos to follow��

274. Type of Procedure Most women infibulated Circumcision and Excision widespread Some cases reported Circumcision practiced among groups

275. Reasons for FGM

276. Textbook p. 124which of the arguments regarding FGM do you find the most persuasive ? It is immoral because it inflicts pain on girls and removes their right to sexual pleasure. I disagree with this cultural practice It is so immoral that there is a need for social action to change this practice It is moral because it is a cultural practice and different cultural practices should be respected

277. Universality v cultural relativism If you agreed with 1 and 2 you might believe Human rights are concerned with protection of the individual The concept of rights has no meaning unless rights are universal. Everyone has the same right to protection. This set of rights have been determined Rights therefore bring with them a degree of finality and imposition. However, your beliefs are an example of an imposed etic

278. relativism Each and every culture has its own notion of human rights and freedoms. Human rights can only exist by reverting back to cultural norms, not looking to external (Western, legal) documents. Each group should look to their own culture to devise and implement their own notion of rights. Employing the universalist concept of rights or using the available international instruments is a form of cultural imperialism. Thus, an act in one culture that seems barbaric to an outsider " such as female circumcision " cannot be thus judged, because the outsider has his own value system that is relevant to the culture http://www.jstor.org/pss/3775716 http://cj.my/silabernafas/2009/11/24/female-circumcision-a-la-malaysia/

279. Cultural bias Since psychology became an scientific endeavourr it has been dominated by the west and particularly by the US. In 1992 a study was conducted by Rosenzweig which found that 64% of the entire world�s psychologists were Americans. 94% of the studies referenced and explored were from North America 2% being from Europe, 1% from Australia and other countries 

280. cross cultural psychology Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. Cross-cultural research helps to test the validity of many psychological truths and principles previously thought to be true for everyone

281. It is quite common for cross-cultural psychologists to take one of two possible approaches � etic or emic ..

283. Cross Cultural study Mead and gender development ( 1935 ) She found that the Mundugumor tribe - exhibited �masculine� characteristics as both men and women were aggressive. The Arapesh tribe exhibited� feminine � traits as both men and women were emotional and nonaggressive. Amongst the Tchambuli people � she found a gender reversal. The men ran the household whilst the women ran the village.

284. Mead ( 1935 ) Such ethnographic studies illustrate the role of culture on behavior. Mead argued that gender roles are culturally determined rather than biologically determined by innate sex differences as believed in the West, She noted that behavior regarded as masculine in one culture could be considered feminine in another

285. An imposed etic This study may also demonstrate an imposed etic in research. An imposed etic is a technique or a theory which is rooted within the personal culture of the researcher and is then used to study other cultures. Mead�s study could be considered an imposed etic in that she was using Western notions of masculinity/feminity to document gender roles in non-western cultures. To describe the Arapesh people as �feminine� attaches a western construct to a set of behaviours which may be unique to the Arapesh people

286. Other areas of psychology where imposed etics are clearly evident are in; Psychometric testing where IQ and personality tests have traditionally been culturally biased in terms of content, phrasing, application and assessment ( Hill, p. 25) Clinical psychology � where standards of �normal� or �healthy� behavior have been based on western norms

287. How do cultures differ ? Name 5 different ways

288. 3-288 Culture and the workplace Study on the relationship between culture and the workplace by Geert Hofstede 1967-73 He asked over 100,000 employees in 50 countries of the multinational company IBM to fill in surveys about morale in the workplace. He then carried out a content analysis and found that over half of the variance between countries was accounted for by five dimensions. .

289. 3-289 Hofstede�s cultural dimensions 5 dimensions of culture Power distance Individualism versus collectivism Uncertainty avoidance Masculinity versus femininity Long-term orientation ( Confucian dynamism)

290. Define each dimension Examples of each dimension � high Examples of each dimension - low

292. 3-292 Work related values for twenty countries

293. Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour

294. We shall focus on; The role of Individualism / collectivism on; � Concept of self � Conformity The role Long Term v Short Term Orientation ( Confucian dynamism) on; � Time orientation

295. Individualism V collectivism

296. Reasons for differences Economic wealth Religion/philosophy Geographical proximity

297. 1. The role of Individualism / collectivism on concept of self  �According to Markus & Kitayama different types of cultures (individualist or collectivist) influence the ay people construct the self. These different constructions impact people�s cognitions, emotions and behaviours.

298. Markus and Kitayama (1991 Individualist cultures; emphasize individual differences, reward personal goals and achievements, Social relationships are mainly characterized by competition, In such cultures people seem themselves as unique individuals, separate from others They introduced the term �self-construal� and argued that individualist cultures favour an independent self construal

299. collectivist cultures Emphasize social groups and roles, reward compliance and conformity to cultural norms, social relationships are mainly characterized by cooperation, In these cultures people see themselves as related to others and close to their groups. These cultures favour an interdependent self

300. Clark (1986) Cites a story from the 1976 Quebec Olympics to illustrate cultural differences in thinking about the self A tight competition for the gold medal on the rings between the Soviet Union and Japan all hinged on a final performance by Shun Fujimoto He scored a 9.7 thus securing gold for Japan Incredibly Fujimoto had broken his leg the previous day but he hid the extent of his injuries The ring performance caused him intense pain Clark argued that Americans and Japanese would explain his behaviour very differently

301. Americans might argue that Fujimoto was driven by the glory of the gold medal, and fulfilling a personal dream. He would especially be considered a hero for performing under such adverse circumstances.

302. Asians (Japansese) would argue that it was an obligation to the team that pushed him to endure the suffering and perform. If he didn�t compete his team would have lost the medal He even concealed the injury to prevent his teammates from worrying

303. Markus & Kitayama (1991) argue that this sense of self can influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Some differences in self expression between independent and interdependent self are;

306. Twenty Statements Test (or TST) Test used to measure self concept.� Kuhn &� McPartland (1954), with the aim of finding a standardised way to measure assumptions and self-attitudes.� The test takes the form of a survey, with respondents asked to give up to twenty responses to the prompts, "Who am I?" or "I am..." Has been used cross-culturally to compare cultural differences in self concept Coding can vary � we will use the following;

307.  .

308. Evidence for cultural differences in independent and interdependent self-construals Singelis� 24 item self-construal scales (1994), designed to measure independent and interdependent self construals. Many studies using such scales have found that Americans score higher on Independence items and lower on Interdependence items than Asians. Singelis (1994) argued however, that a person may possess components of both an individualist �and collectivist personality, such as an African American individual holding both collectivist beliefs of his or her ancestry and individualist beliefs associated with Caucasian Americans http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070876940/student_view0/chapter2/activity_2_6.html

310. Long term v short term orientation fifth dimension added later. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced. Therefore, Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From these results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teaching of Confucius on the East, long term vs. short term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension. Confucian values emphasize thrift, perseverance, virtue and filial piety.

311. Long term orientation

312. Such values have been used to explain the rapid success of Asian �tiger� economies in the 1980�s and 1990�s. China and other East Asian countries have an extraordinary long-term orientation such values as persistence allows the continuous pursuit of certain goals and long term planning. Ordering relationships by status and observing this order makes it easier to manage people; a sense of thrift makes available financial resources and allows saving money. Having a sense of shame ( also typical of collectivist cultures) and virtue enables loyalty and commitment to the company. Less emphasis on business traditions allows for innovation and change.

313. evaluation Although Hofstede conceptualized individualism � collectivism as one bipolar dimension of culture, more recent research suggests the dimensions are more continuous and may even overlap. Triandis et al ( 1993 ) found that under some circumstances people may exhibit collectivist cultural traits whilst another time exhibit more individualist cultural traits. For example whilst individualism is the most dominant cultural value in American society at times Americans can exhibit collectivist values, such as was demonstrated after the 9/11 attacks .

314. evaluation Hofstede cautioned against the ecological fallacy when using these dimensions. The ecological fallacy is the mistaken belief that if two cultures differ across dimensions it should not be assumed that two individuals from those cultures would also differ ( Cardwell, p. 690 ). The techniques used to gather these data ( a series of questionnaires ) and the dimensions proposed to explain the results demonstrate a cultural bias specific to western scientific values ( Cardwell, p. 690 ) Finally, such dimensions are not the only ways to view cultural differences. There are other ways such as in non-verbal communication

315. According to Hall, Northern European and western cultures have a monochronic time orientation. For monochronic cultures, such as the American culture, �time is tangible� and viewed as a commodity where �time is money� or �time is wasted. Emphasis is on one task at a time, task completion and schedules. �In contrast Hall postulated that polychronic time orientation is more common in the Middle East, Southern Europe, and Central and South America. I n these countries, individuals are more likely to engage in two or more activities during the same time block. Flexibility in time use and changes of activity are common and expected. Punctuality is not expected.