MODERN ERA: 1750 - 1900

1. MODERN ERA:1750 - 1900 CHANGES IN THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE STRUCTURES

2. REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS • Revolution • A popular idea, means to an end • A way to restructure society • Popular sovereignty • Relocating sovereignty in the people • Traditional monarchs • Claimed a "divine right" to rule • Derived from God, unquestionable • Monarch unanswerable to people • Constitutional Limitations • Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king • Glorious Revolution of 1688 • Made the monarch responsible to the people • John Locke's theory of contractual government • Authority comes from the consent of the governed • Freedom and equality • Demands for freedom of worship • Freedom of expression, assembly • Demands for political and legal equality • Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract • Equality not extended to all • Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color • Originally only extended to tax paying males with education • Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence

3. TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS • Aristocratic Revolution • Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges • Often against royal absolutism • Rarely for other classes rights • Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy • English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example • Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution • Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility • Extension of franchise, ability to hold office • Issues of taxation often involved • Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise limited • American (1776), French (1789), Meiji Restoration (1867) • Latin American Revolutions (1820s) • Mass revolutions • Most of society effected and involved • Often goals are quite radical • Methods to achieve are often quite violent • Nationalist Revolutions • China (1911) • Haitian Revolution (1793) • Socialist Revolutions • Worker-Oriented or Peasant-Oriented • Russian Revolution (1905), Mexican Revolution (1910)

4. REFORM • Often system allowed change without radical means, violence • Reform was a theme of 1750 – 1914 • Reform movements • Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions • Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue • One of the hallmarks of a democratic society • Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies, Japan • Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia • Abolition of slavery, serfdom • Abolition movement was very successful • Other forms of coercive labor replaced them • Racial, social equality did not follow • Women Rights • One goal was full female franchise • Not achieved until after 1914 but progress • Foreign Reform Movements • India Civil Service Act • China Self-Strengthening • Tanzimat (Turkey) • Meiji Reforms (Japan)

5. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION • Tension between Britain, American colonies • Legacy of Seven Years' War • British debt, North American tax burden • Colonists increasingly independent minded • Colonial protest • Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule • Colonial boycott of British goods • Attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773 • Political protest over representation in Parliament • Continental Congress, 1774 • British troops, colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, 1775 • The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776 • Thirteen united States of America severed ties with Britain • Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's theory of government • The American Revolution, 1775-1781 • British advantages: strong government, navy, army, loyalists in colonies • American advantages: European allies, George Washington's leadership • Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in 1781 • Building an independent state: Constitutional Convention, 1787 • Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion • Republic based on principles of freedom, equality, popular sovereignty • Full legal and political rights were granted only to men of property

6. FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON • Summoning the Estates General • Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt • King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes • Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform • First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners) • National Assembly • Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789 • Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty • Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities • National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen" • "Liberty, equality, and fraternity“: slogan and values of the National Assembly • The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church • France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791 • The Convention and the Reign of Terror • Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791 • Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime • Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic • King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793 • Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror" • Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights • The Directory, 1795-1799 • A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention • Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794 • Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism • Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy • Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope • Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism • Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews • Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men • Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world’s great legal traditions • Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press

7. THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM

8. HAITIAN REVOLUTION • Saint-Domingue • Rich French colony on western Hispaniola • Society dominated by small white planter class • 90 percent of population were slaves • Horrendous working conditions • Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons) • Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks • Free blacks fought in American war • Widespread discontent • White settlers sought self-governance • Gens de couleur sought political rights • Slaves wanted freedom • Slave revolt began in 1791 • Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur, slaves battled each other • French troops arrived in 1792; British, Spanish intervened in 1793 • Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish part • Whites driven into exile, executed • Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803) • Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment • Skilled organizer, built strong, disciplined army • Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797 • Created a constitution in 1801 • Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803 • Haiti • Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated, driven out by slave armies • Declared independence in 1803; republic established in 1804 • Civil War followed until 1810; kingdom to 1820 • Dominican Republic independent in 1844

9. INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA • Latin American society rigidly hierarchical • Social classes: peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, slaves, indigenous peoples • Creoles sought to displace the peninsulares but retain their privileged position • Mestizos form the largest part of population, wanted rights • Mexican independence • Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened royal control of colonies • 1810: peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo, defeated by conservative creoles • 1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship, then in 1822 a republic • Southern Viceroyalty of New Spain split into several independent states in 1830s • Simon Bolivar to 1822 • Led independence movement in South America • Inspired by George Washington, took arms against Spanish rule in 1811 • Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America, 1824 • Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s • Jose de San Martin to 1825 • Led independence movements in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile • United efforts with Bolivar • Brazilian independence • Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro, 1807 • Brazil declared a separate kingdom during exilel • The king's son, Pedro, agreed to Brazilian independence, 1821 • Became Emperor Pedro I in the independent Brazil (reigned 1822-1834) • Creole dominance in Latin America • Independence brought little social change in Latin America • Principal beneficiaries were creole elites • Creole elite merged with peninsulares to rule Latin America • Mestizos acquired some benefits, Indians/blacks marginalized • Caribbean remained largely under European control

10. THE NEW AMERICAN MAP

11. LATIN AMERICA • Old Problems confront new realities • Leaders came from Enlightenment: spoke of equality, freedom • No allowance freedom of religion • Slavery ended but not exploitation of poor, Indians • Equality was too threatening to elite • Democracy uncommon, rich men voted • Old color distinctions did not disappear rapidly, easily, or at all • Political fragmentation • Political instability after independence • Creole leaders ruled but had little experience with self-government • White minority dominated politics • Peasant majority was without power • Political instability aggravated by division among elites • Constant argument between centralizing and federalizing pressures • Conflicts between farmers, ranchers, indigenous peoples common • Intense fighting in Argentina, Chile; modern weapons against native peoples • Colonists had pacified most productive land by 1870s • Caudillos, Caudillism, Politics and the Church • Military leaders who held power after revolutionary era • Used military to seize power, stay in control; interested only in power for own sake • Opposed liberalizing effects; often made alliances with aristocratic elites, land owners • Ruled through the church and opposed an secularization, reform of society • Mexico: war and reform from 1821-1911 • Shifted from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule • La Reforma: liberal movement in 1850s led by President Benito Juarez • Granted universal male suffrage; limited power of priests and military • Reforms strongly opposed by landowning elites

12. NATIONALISM • Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French Revolution • Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives • An idea which could unify society across social classes • Many aspects similar to religion, faith • Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch • Dominated 19th century • Cultural nationalism • An expression of national identity • Emphasized common historical experience • Used folk culture, literature, music • Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness • Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century • Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group • Minorities sought independence as national community • Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini • World-wide spread • Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of nationalism • Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures • Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan • Zionism • Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism • Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in Palestine • Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948

13. EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES • Conservatism • Called the Ancien Regime • Resisted change, opposed revolutions • Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy • Edmund Burke • Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over time • American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history • French Revolution: violent and irresponsible • Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration • Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers • Monarchy was at heart of conservatism • Liberalism • Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress • Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education to help industrialization • Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate slightly • Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions • Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms • John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights • Radicalism • Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights • Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in interests of lower classes • A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class status • Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to status quo • Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early nationalism • Nationalism often both radical and liberal but largely anti-conservative

14. IMAGINED COMMUNITIES • Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860 • Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 • Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon • Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century • Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas • Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance • UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in “concert” • Attempted to prevent revolutions, change • Intervened militarily to oppose change • Often forced to limit, control changes • Nationalist rebellions • Against old order throughout nineteenth century • 1800s: Haiti, Latin America • 1820s • Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827 • Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians • 1830/1848 • Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany • Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted • Imagined Communities • Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of community • Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals

15. THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE • Socialism • Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution • Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the workers in the cities • Utopian socialists • Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers • Established model communities based on principle of equality • Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children • Marxian Socialists (Communists) • Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading socialists • Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive • Critique of industrial capitalism • Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class • State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class • The Communist Manifesto, 1848 • Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a communist revolution • Revolution would wipe away capitalism and establish a socialist society • “Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism • Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society • Ideas dominated European, international socialism throughout 19th century • Revisionism: Democratic Socialism and Reform Socialism • Combined aspects of socialism with democracy • Public ownership of means of production, regulation of industries • Limits to private property, accumulation of wealth • Power achieved democratically through elections, trade unions • Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures • Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children • Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security • Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers • Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments • Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence • Socialist parties began to compete in elections, seek expanded electorate

16. UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY • Italy • After Congress of Vienna • Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign dynasties • Austria was the preeminent power in Italy • Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule • 1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops • Sardinia and Cavour • Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state • Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists • Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French aide • Garibaldi • Revolutionary nationalist, democrat • Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy • 1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia • Germany • After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich • German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by Austria • Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria • Metternich’s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism • 1848 Revolution • Destroyed by Austria • Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification • Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge • Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) • Created a united Germany through blood and iron • Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism • Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride • Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia • 1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich

17. MAPS OF UNIFICATION

18. THE UNITED STATES • Jacksonian Democracy • Expansion of electorate to include poorer, western Americans • By 1820s all adult white men could vote and hold office • Constant tension between states rights, federal powers • Rapid westward expansion after the revolution • Britain ceded lands east of Mississippi to US • 1803, US purchased France's Louisiana Territory • By 1840s, coast-to-coast expansion was claimed as “manifest destiny” • The Mexican-American War, 1845-1848 • Conflict with indigenous peoples followed • 1830, Indian Removal Act forced eastern Indians to move west of Mississippi • Thousands died on the "Trail of Tears" to Oklahoma • Stiff resistance to expansion: Battle of Little Big Horn, 1876, Sioux victory • U.S. massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890, ended Indian Wars • An Era of Compromise Avoided Conflict 1820-1854 • North had the population, dominated House of Representatives • South wanted to preserve slavery but would lose a vote in House • Missouri Compromise in 1820 admitted one slave, one free state • South able to block abolition of slavery in Senate • Sectional conflict • 19th century cotton cultivation in south was dependent on slave labor • Northern states did not want slavery expanded into new territories • Expansion, new states, fugitive slave law made compromise impossible • Abraham Lincoln elected president, 1860; publicly opposed to slavery • The U.S. Civil War, 1861-1865 • With Lincoln's election, eleven southern states seceded from the Union • Southerners believed their economy of cotton and slaves was self-sufficient • Northerners fought to preserve the Union as much as in opposition to slavery • In 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made abolition goal of the war • By 1865, the industrial north defeated the agricultural south • The war ended slavery, enhanced authority of the federal government

19. USA IN MAPS

20. CANADIAN DOMINION • Independence came without war • Autonomy and division characterized Canadian history • Distance from England, isolation in north and interior led to self-government, autonomy • Always a contest between English speaking, French speaking groups • Immigrants and Amerindians dominated in the interior • Eastern Canada (Quebec, Ontario, Maritime Provinces) dominate Canada • French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven Years' War • Quebec Act was a large cause of war with American colonies • British authorities made large concessions to French Canadians • After 1781, many British loyalists fled United States to seek refuge in Canada • The War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S. invaders • Anti-U.S. sentiments due to US invasions, pillaging • Created sense of unity among French and British Canadians • 1830s • Increased Irish, English, Scottish, German immigration • Tensions between French, growing English population • Metis Rebellion: French Indians rebel in west • 1840-1867, British granted home rule to Canadians • Dominion of Canada created in 1867 • Federal constitutional monarchy • Government with a governor-general acting for British monarch • Canadian Parliament and Provincial governments share rule • Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs until 1931 • Prime Minister John Macdonald strengthens Canadian independence • Persuaded western and maritime provinces to join the Dominion, 1860s • Transcontinental railroad completed, 1885 • Settlement of Western plains by Scandinavian, German, Ukrainian immigrants • Development of Canada as major exporter of grain, dairy products

21. CANADA IN IMAGES

22. EURASIAN SOCIETIES AT A CROSSROAD • Threatened Societies • SW Asia: Ottoman Empire, Persia • Eastern Europe: Russia, Austria-Hungary • East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan • Southeast Asia: Vietnam, Thailand • Common problems • Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats • Internal weakness especially from disaffected groups • Economic problems, financial difficulties • Corruption and unresponsive elites • Issues of westernization vs. modernization • Western interests often dominate government, economy • Reform efforts • Attempts at political and educational reform • Attempts at industrialization • Often turned to western models • Different results of reforms • Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Iran, and China • Reforms unsuccessful • Societies on the verge of collapse • Japan • Reform in Japan was more thorough • Japan emerged as an industrial power • Korea, Vietnam, Thailand • Issues complicated by colonialism, imperialism • Korea annexed by Japan; Indochina annexed by France • Thailand maintains independence as a buffer between France, Great Britain

23. EURASIA IN 1871

24. OTTOMAN DECLINE • Military decline since the late seventeenth century • Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training • Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined, unable to fight • Provincial governors gained power, private armies • Russia made war on Ottomans to divert domestic problems • Austria, other European powers support local Christians independence • Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia • Western frontiers to Austria • Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia • Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 • Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army • Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province • France annexes Muslim Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1882 • The State • Government was cumbersome, bureaucratized, medieval • State was multinational and not all Muslim • Power resided often with the provincial governors, elite • Unwilling to adopt modern European methods or reform infrastructure • Dominated by bureaucrats, landed elite unwilling to change • Sultan does not wish to change; Islam unwilling to admit it has fallen • Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century • Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin • Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods • Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest • Corruption, overtaxation of peasants further weakens Ottoman state • Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882 • The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy • Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire • Could operate tax-free, levy their own duties in Ottoman ports • Deprived empire of desperately needed income • Similar problems in most Muslim states including Persia, Morocco

25. OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION • Attempt to reform military • Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808), suppression of Janissaries • Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan after revolt • Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; reforms followed • He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph • Legal, educational reforms • Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-1876) • Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state • Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code • State reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869) • Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority • Opposition to Tanzimat reforms • Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition • Legal equality for minorities resented by some, even a few minority leaders • Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization • High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power • Cycles of reform and repression • 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government • New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909) • Proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals • Reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition • The Young Turks • After 1889, an active body of opposition led by army, navy officers • Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights • Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909) • Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab resistance • The empire survived only because of distrust among European powers

26. MUSLIM RESISTANCE • Resistance • Muslim universities • Frequently organized education around western model • Educated several generations of students • Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans • Often educated in western style universities, learned western ideas • Become source of anti-Western activities even while supporting reform • Revolt in the Sudan • Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce control • Egypt able to control Nile farmers; opposition comes from nomads, herders • Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt, overtaxed peasants • British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery, upsetting Muslims (Koran allows) • Muhammad Achmad “The Mahdi” (1870s) • Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad; proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British masters • Wahhabis Reformer: A very puritanical form of Islam, seeks to purify Islam • Purge Islam of problems; reform, modernize but not at expense to Islam • Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed British commander at Khartoum • Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state • The Mahdi dies; his successor builds an Islamic state under rule of Koran • Threatens to overrun all of Middle East, drive out foreigners, westernizers; British intervene • Reality: Reformers Discredited • Religious revivalists who wanted a return to a pure Islam proved unsuccessful • Reformers willing to borrow some western ideas could not win over people • British (Europeans) will send in army to crush revolts, threats to Europeans

27. QING (MANCHU) CHINA • Qing China (1622 – 1911) • Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria • To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese, Manchu • Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria • Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese • Retained much of Chinese political traditions, institutions • Retained examination system • Ruled through Confucian scholars • Qing Army • Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry • Unwilling to use modern weapons • Rot from Within begins in 18th century • Emperor isolated, ineffective • Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him isolated • Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing • Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs, harem • Bureaucracy • Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and conservative • Examination system riddled with favoritism, elitism, cheating • Wealthy buy positions in bureaucracy • Bureaucrats had no qualifications, training • Diversion of state funds to private families • Public works (dikes, water management) reduced, river silted • Military in decline, fleet in trouble, armies unreliable • Peasants lot deteriorated • Food shortages, landlord demands • Bandits on roads, beggars everywhere • Lack of innovation, reform or insight

28. CHINA UNDER PRESSURE • The Taiping rebellion • Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century • Population grew by 50 percent; land and food more slowly; poverty strained resources • Other problems: official corruption, drug addiction • Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s; the most dangerous was the Taiping • The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan • Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule • Radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage • Popular in southeast China; seized Nanjing (1853), moved on Beijing • Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops • Gentry sided with government; regional armies had European weapons • Taipings defeated in 1864; the war claimed twenty to thirty million lives • Reform frustrated • The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895) • Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology • Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies • Not enough industry to make a significant change • Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes • The hundred-days reforms (1898) • Two Confucian scholars advised radical changes in imperial system • Young emperor Guangxu inspired to launch wide-range reforms • Movement crushed by Cixi; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed • The Boxer rebellion • Real name: the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, 1899-1900 • Local militia attacked foreigners, foreign legations, Chinese Christians • Crushed by European and Japanese troops • Chinese forced to sign humiliating treaties • Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912

29. JAPAN: SHOGUN TO EMPEROR • Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century • Emperor isolated, secluded; shogun = military dictator • Centralized bureaucracy; alliances with feudal lords • Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider world • Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a year • Crisis • Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising rice prices • All led to protests and rebellions • Reforms and ideas conflict • Government: Neo-Confucian conservative reforms • Dutch Learning: Support western studies, reforms, working with west; anti-Chinese • National Studies: praised Japanese traditions, emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism • Foreign pressure on Japan • European wanted her to reverse long-standing closed door policy • Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for whaling fleets • 1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the right of entry rebuffed • 1853 • U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry • Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with U.S., other western countries • The end of Tokugawa rule • British, French, Russians demand, receive similar treaties to US • Widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces • Dissidents rallied around emperor in Kyoto, attack foreigners • Tosa-Satsuma Samurai Rebellion/Civil War breaks out in 1866 • The Meiji restoration, 1868 • Dissident Samurai militia loyal to emperor defeats Shogun’s troops • The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, regained authority; Shogunate abolished • End of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan

30. JAPAN: MEIJI ERA • Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise • Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions and education • Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional government • Social Revolution: 1873 - 1876 • Abolition of the feudal order essential to new government • Daimyo and samurai lost status, privileges; class abolished • Samurai issued bonds to pay for loss, but inflation led to impoverishment • Samurai rebelled but the new national conscript army put rebellion down • Some went into business, created western-style companies (Mitsubishi) • Districts reorganized to break up old feudal domains • Emperor created new nobility based on English style House of Peers • Revamping tax system • Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax: more reliable income for state • Assessed taxes on potential productivity of arable land • Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889 • Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of the people • Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote • Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for debate and dissent but limited powers • Remodeling the economy and infrastructure • Transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships • Education: universal primary and secondary; competitive universities • Industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry • Zaibatsu: powerful financial combines merged banking, manufacturing, merchants • Costs of economic development borne by Japanese people • Land tax • Cost peasants 40 percent to 50 percent of crop yield • Provided 90 percent of state revenue • Peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering • Labor movement also crushed; Meiji law treated unions and strikes as criminal • Japan became an industrial power in a single generation • Ended unequal treaties in 1899 • Defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1904

31. AFRICA • Africa 1750 – 1850 • North Africa nominally part of the Ottoman Empire • Sudan, Sahel Africa had most powerful, developed states • West Africa forest kingdoms part of the Atlantic slave trade • East Africa dominated by native kingdoms, Swahili trading states • South Africa: population dispersal, state building of the Ngoni • Few European possessions in Africa • Atlantic (not Islamic) slave trade ended in early 19th century • Age of Exploration leads to Imperialism • Europeans explore Africa, developed interest in Africa • Permitted by technology • Transportation, weaponry made it easy • Medicines made it possible • Africa was the center, objective of imperialism • Africa was partitioned between Europeans • Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent • Infrastructures and Changes • Political • Colonial powers ignored indigenous peoples almost totally • Set boundaries to states, destroying tribes, unity • Ruled indirectly through local elites, who they could remove at will • Undermined traditional systems of rule • Chiefs derived authority from gods • Missionaries challenge traditional religion • Chiefs lost prestige associated with land as people earned money • Western educated locals challenge traditional ways • Economic • Exploitation is the key word • Minerals solely for benefit of mother country • Cash crops and agriculture dominated by European crops, interests • Europeans take best, richest lands for cattle, farming • Building of railroads, infrastructure especially ports • Breakdown of African barter system; replaced by monetary system • Africans forced to work on European farms, in European factories by tax, levies, force • Loss of African self-sufficiency

32. MAPPING AFRICA, 1830

33. AFRICA 1914

34. RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE • Post-1812 • Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order • Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy • Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order • December Uprising 1825 • Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel • Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar • Nicholas I • Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality • State became very repressive, secret police • Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions • Suppressed rebellion in Poland • Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems • Serfdom Issue • Russia needed work force in order to industrial • Serfdom not efficient • Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development • Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems • Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863 • Due to loss in Crimean War • Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles • Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs • Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt • Emancipation did not increase agricultural production • Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights • Political and legal reforms followed • 1864: creation of zemstvos • Local assemblies with representatives from all classes • Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful • A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power • Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats • Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community

35. RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM • Cycles of protest and repression • Peasants • Often landless, no political power • Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform • Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened • Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society • Social Protest • Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s • Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation • Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside • Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship • Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated • Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition • Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective • Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants • Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism • Many became peasant anarchists • Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881 • Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler • Marxism and the Reality of Russia • Marx foresaw a revolution by workers • Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant • Workers tended to be radical but misdirected • Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution • The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin • From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual • Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution • Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase • Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants • Organized the Bolsheviks • Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere • Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups • Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution

36. MARXISM:Workerswill stage arevolution and overthrowcapitalism, stateLENINISM:Will only succeed withthe leadership of an elitegroup ofrevolutionaries

37. RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905 • Russian Revolution of 1905 • Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause • Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars • In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire • Massive protests followed news of defeat • Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow • Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords • Police repressions ineffective, just upset people • Bloody Sunday massacre • Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to ask tsar for help • Unarmed workers shot down by government troops • Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords • Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories • Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized • Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution • A Fizzled Revolution • Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma • Many parties elected with conflicting interests • Unable, unwilling to cooperate • Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy • Stolypin Reforms • Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments • Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise • Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled • Army failed to support revolution • For the Future • Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy • Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized • Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future

38. A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE • Austria 1750 – 1814 • A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors • The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman nor an empire • No common government, few common institutions (save Catholicism) • Austria in 1815 – 1860 • One of the victors against Napoleon: extremely conservative and reactionary • The weakest, most threatened of Europe’s great powers • Prime Minister Metternich dominated German Confederation, Italy • Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian nationalism • Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy • 1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state • Russia intervened to suppress revolutions • Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to suppress revolutions • Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany w/o Austria • Austria in 1866 – 1870 • Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance; 1866 by Prussia • Driven from German Confederation, Italy • Sees nationalism, German unification triumph under rival Prussia • Sees Italy united under Sardinia; Papal states erased • 1867 Ausgleich with Hungarians • Hungarians formed resistive group; 2nd largest nationality in empire • Agree to rule jointly with Hungarians; name changed to Austria-Hungary • Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenians, Serbo-Croats, Poles, Ruthenians, Rumanians disenfranchised • Magyars insist upon assimilation of its peoples • Austria 1870 – 1914 • Industrialization occurs in Czech area but remains largely agrarian • Many citizens immigrate due to hardships, repressive rule of Magyars • State unable to reform as it is blocked by aristocrats, Germans, Magyars • State threatened by Pan-Slavic nationalism • Russia became a permanent enemy in Balkans along with Serbia • Forms an alliance with Germany to protect state • Opposes any form of national independence for Balkan Slavs, own Slavs

39. MAP OF CONFUSION

40. NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM • Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism • Source of national pride, strength to acquire colonies • Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist • Many studied in Western schools, learned western knowledge to get ahead • Many defined their sense of nation as response to imperialism • India • Two types of state-structures in India • Princely States: States ruled by Indian princes, assisted by British officials • British possessions: States ruled directly by British • Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India" • Sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism • Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform • The Indian National Congress, founded 1885 • Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs • Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule • 1906, All-India Muslim League • Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims • Limited reform, 1909; • Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils • Indian nationalism • A powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947 • India served as a model for anti-colonial campaigns in other lands • Other Examples • Sepoy Rebellion in India (1856) • Meiji Restoration in Japan • 1898 Boxer Rebellion in China • Late 1800s Mahdist Rebellion and State in the Sudan • 1898 Boer War in South Africa • 1905 Iranian, 1910 Mexican, 1911 Chinese Revolutions

41. NATIONALIST RIVALRIES • Nationalism spread by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars • Self-determination: each ethnic group had a right to a sovereign state • Concept was ignored or opposed by dynastic powers • Considerable nationalistic tensions in Ottoman, Hapsburg, and Russian empires • Slavic nationalism in the Balkans • Stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples • Pan-Slavism was a movement to unite all Slavs under the Russian tsar • Ottoman empire shrank as first Greece, then others, gained independence • Serbs of Austria-Hungary sought unification with independent Serbia • Russians promoted Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungarian empire • Germany backed Austria-Hungary to fight ethnic nationalism • The naval race between Germany and Britain increased tensions • Germany's rapid industrialization threatened British economic predominance • Both states built huge iron battleships, called dreadnoughts • Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century • Germany unified in 1871; came late to the colonial race • German resentment and antagonism toward both France and Britain • France and Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905 • Balkan wars (1912-13) further strained European diplomatic relations • Public opinion supported national rivalries • Attitudes of aggressive patriotism among European citizens • Leaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risks

42. IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911 • Causes • Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would have to limit Shah’s power • Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian territory upset Iranians • Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament • 1905: A year of demonstrations and strikes • Parliamentarians tended to be educated, merchants, clerics, young • Introduced the constitutional concept of government • People were sovereign and their representatives were delegated to enact the laws • Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts constitutional limitations • 1906 • Constitutionalists failed to protect victory against domestic, international threats • Trade Russian influence for British control • Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to respect constitution • 1907-1908 • UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into “spheres of influence” • Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow constitution • Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced to abdicate, flees • Spheres of influence • Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31, 1907 • Divided Iran into three zones • Russia took Northern part • British zone paralleled the Persian Gulf, Indian empire • Neutral zone across center of country open to both interests • 1910 • Russia invades • Helps old Shah reestablish his rule in Iran

43. MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920 • The Revolution (1910-1920) • Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow Diaz • Class Factions • 1910-1914: all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta • 1914-20: Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa • Regional Revolutions: North, South, Yucatan • Course of the Revolution • Liberal Middle Class Leaders • Francisco Madero rules at first • Seeks middle class constitutional democracy • Opposes land reform; landless peasants attack large landowners • Peasant armies win pitched battles against government troops • General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills Madero • Venustiano Carranza • Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon • US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta resigns • Peasant, Common Rebels • Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially landless peasants • Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the Southern areas he controls • US Intervenes in 1914 (Veracruz) and 1916 (Chasing Pancho Villa) • Civil War 1914 – 1917: Constitutionalists (Carranza) win, reestablish control • Women’s Roles: Soldaderas (camp followers), Soldiers, Political Activists • New Constitution of 1917 brought sweeping reform • Advanced nationalist, radical views • Universal male suffrage (hostile to women) • Power, property of Church restricted • Free, secular, obligatory primary education • Returned lands seized illegally; curbed foreign ownership • 8 hour work day, Minimum wage, Strikes legal

44. CHINESE REVOLUTION • Reform Fails • Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform • Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state, humiliating to Chinese • Chinese leaders • Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US • Sun Yat-sen • Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese foreign funds • Wins support of many military officers, foreign exiles • Sun’s Three Principles of the People • Nationalism: Overthrow Manchus, end foreign hegemony • Democracy: Popularly elected republican form of government • People's Livelihood: help people, regulate means of production, land • 1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei • Local army rebellion followed by many armies • Joined by United League members • 2/3 of provinces join rebels • 1912 • Last Emperor abdicates • Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president • General Yuanshikai in Beijing takes control • Sun resigns as president to unify the state • Results • Revolution did not establish a stable republic • China fell into warlords' rule • Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China • Growth of Chinese nationalism, radicalism