Enzymes

1.                            UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA           FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND HUMANITIES   DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION                 FOUNDATION BIOLOGY - ESC 3104                     LECTURER: MR. WAZIM SHARIF          GROUP E Marlisa Saroopchand June-Ann Hinds Teneisha Smartt Chetram Darsham Tattianna Adams

2. Introduction Do you know that there are keep us alive? tiny superheroes inside of our bodies, working 24/7 to

3. Introduction Yes! These superheroes have They are ENZYMES! special powers. They can speed in our body. substances and even fix problems up reactions, break down

4. All About Enzymes - Definition - Characteristics - Importance - Structure - How it works - Factors affecting enzymes - Types - Uses - Deficiencies and Disorders

5. Definition Specialized proteins which function as biological catalysts, to increase chemical reactions in organisms by lowering the activation of energy required for the catalysts to take place. (Nelson & Cox, 2017)

6. Characteristics • Biological Catalysts: Proteins called enzymes greatly increase chemical reactions in living things. For example: there is an enzyme in our saliva which converts starch into a simple sugar. • PH and Temperature Sensitive: Enzymes operate best within specific pH and temperature ranges. They become less active outside of these ranges. For example, Pepsin in our stomach (ph), the pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides during digestion.

7. Characteristics • Lower Activation Energy: Enzymes facilitate a process by lowering the energy barrier necessary for it to take place. For example- the amalyze in our saliva, the amalyze helps to break down starch into sugar by lowering the activation energy required for the hydrolysis reaction (the break down of starch molecules by water) • Reusability: The reactions that enzymes catalyze do not result in their consumption. Once an enzyme catalyzes a reaction, it doesn't change and can be used again and again. This means the enzymes will remain unchanged and can be use repeatedly.

8. Importance of Enzymes Enzymes are essential for life processes. They help with: - Metabolism and digestion. For example it helps digestion: this is where food molecules are broken down by digestive enzymes into smaller pieces that the body can absorb. - Detoxification For example cytochrome the P450 enzymes in the liver helps to metabolize drugs and toxins, making it easier for the body to eliminate. - Replication and Repair of DNA For example, DNA Replication during cell division (mitosis and meiosis).A real life example is when our skin regenerate during wound healing or when red blood cells are produce - Food Production Food industry- enzymes in making cheese, for example the rennet ( Chymosin) - Healing of Wounds For example when we have a skin cut, the healing process can be completed within days , resulting in a scar that fades over time.

9. Structure of Enzymes Enzymes are made up of amino acids and they have a unique shape. It has three types of structures – primary, secondary, and tertiary structure. Enzymes made of amino acids that are arranged in a polypeptide chain creates the primary structure. The amino acid chain formed is called a polypeptide.

10. Structure of Enzymes The protein folds upon itself when the hydrogen in one group and the oxygen in another group forms a hydrogen bond. This causes the protein to fold, forming a 2-dimensional plane which is the secondary structure. Imagine folding a piece of paper into an accordion shape. The hydrogen bonds between different parts of the paper hold the folds in place. In an enzyme, hydrogen bonds cause the polypeptide chain to fold into a two- dimensional shape like alpha-helices or beta-sheets. The secondary structure can fold up further which creates a 3- dimensional structure. This structure is the tertiary structure of the enzyme. Picture crumpling the accordion-folded paper into a ball, creating a complex 3D shape. This folding is stabilized by various bonds (e.g., hydrogen, ionic, and disulfide bonds). For enzymes, this 3D structure creates the active site, the area where the substrate binds

11. How do Enzymes work Enzymes lowers the amount of energy needed for a reaction to begin. They bind to reactant molecules and hold them so that the formation and breaking of bonds during the process can take place readily.

12. How do Enzymes work https://youtu.be/gUncqL1ul8Q? si=9ctIev7NngA28l8u

13. Factors affecting Enzymes Temperature: High temperature increases the reaction rate, and low temperature slows down a reaction. Enzyme activity is best around 35.5°C. Rising temperature would usually speed up any activity ( this is because of heat). Likewise, in an enzyme, extreme high temperature causes an enzyme to lose its shape or stop functioning. The molecules would move faster at high temperatures. The faster the molecules move, the more collision increases, and molecules will move more quickly. PH: Each enzyme works best within a particular range of ph. When greater than the ph range, it reduces activity. Each enzyme has it unique PH level, which functions at its best. Most enzymes have a PH of 7. The -Enzymes in the stomach have a PH of about 2, enzyme in the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) have a PH of about 8 or 9. PH affects the charge and shape of the substrate, which can prevent it from binding the enzyme active site.

14. Factors affecting Enzymes Enzyme Concentration: Increasing enzyme concentration speeds up a reaction. This is the number of enzymes in a specific area. A higher enzyme concentration means there are more active sites available. However, on the other hand, if there is not enough enzyme present, the reaction will not proceed as fast as it is expected to. This is so because all the active sites are occupied with the reaction. As the amount of enzyme is increased, the rate of reaction increases. Substrate Concentration: Increasing substrate concentration increases the reaction speed of enzymes. The rate of an enzyme activity increases as the concentration of substrate increases to a certain point.

15. Types of Enzymes Enzymes are named according to the type of reaction they catalyze. 1. Oxidoreductases - Catalyze oxidation. These enzymes remove or add oxygen to help our bodies 2. Transferases - Catalyze transferring of a functional group from one molecule to another. This is like moving peanut butter from a jar and spreading it onto a slice of bread. The peanut butter which is and example of one molecule is transferred onto the bread slice which is the other molecule. 3. Hydrolases - Catalyze hydrolysis of proteins, starch, fats, nucleic acids, and other complex biomolecules Lipases. If we dip a cookie in some water it will get soft and start to fall apart. This is the same way hydrolases work. They break down large molecules using water into smaller ones.

16. Types of Enzymes 4. Lyases - Catalyze breaking of a chemical bond by forming double bonds or adding a group to a double bond. These enzymes break or join molecules just like cutting a rope into pieces or tying pieces together to make one. 5. Isomerases - Catalyze rearrangement causing a structural shift in a molecule and thus changes its shape. Its like rearranging puzzles pieces to form a picture. 6. Ligases - Catalyze the binding or joining of two molecules. When we place block on top of each other they stick together. Ligases work like blocks. They glue molecules together, joining them.

17. Uses of Enzymes

18. Uses of Enzymes - Industries such as: Food and Beverage- enzymes are extensively used for food processing. -baking (helps to keep bread softer for longer) -dairy ( make dairy products suitable for people who are lactose intolerant) -brewing ( make beer from local grains) Juice extraction ( extract fruit and vegetable juices) Detergent- enzymes are the main components in detergents that are used for laundry and dishwashing. Enzymes are used in Detergents to break down stains and dirt more rigidly. It acts as a catalyst which speeds up the chemical reactions.

19. Uses of Enzymes Pharmaceuticals- enzymes are used for the development, discovery and production of drugs. Enzymes break down molecules into smaller parts to combine them or crate new products. E.g. aminopenicillin acid Textile- enzymes are used for the processing of textiles Bio-finishing E.g. polishing, washing, softener for fabrics Diagnostic use of uses of enzymes For example: Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA) . Elisa is a common laboratory technique that uses enzymes to detect the presence of proteins etc. and is widely use for diagnosing infections, such as HIV, Covid-19, testing for allergies etc.

20. Uses of Enzymes - Biosensors Biosensors are devices that measure biological or chemical reactions by converting them into electrical signals. Enzymes help to detect and quantify substances like glucose, DNA and cholesterols. - Biofuel Production Enzymes help with the production of biofuels. E.g., ethanol - Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Enzymes are essential in molecular biology research. They are used for DNA manipulation, genetic engineering, and also DNA sequencing.

21. Deficiencies of Enzymes Lactase Deficiency (Lactose Intolerance) . Cause: Lack of the enzyme lactase, which breaks down lactose (sugar in milk). • Symptoms: Bloating, diarrhea, and stomach pain after consuming dairy. • Solution: Avoid lactose-containing foods or use lactase supplements.

22. Deficiencies of Enzymes Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency • Cause: Deficiency of the enzyme G6PD, which protects red blood cells from damage. • Symptoms: Fatigue, jaundice, anemia triggered by certain foods, infections, or medications. • Solution: Avoid triggers and manage symptoms.

23. Disorders of Enzymes Albinism • Cause: Lack of the enzyme tyrosinase, which produces melanin (skin pigment). • Symptoms: Light skin, hair, and eyes, and sensitivity to sunlight. • Solution: Protective measures against sun exposure.

24. Disorders of Enzymes Pancreatic Insufficiency • Cause: The pancreas doesn’t produce enough digestive enzymes, like lipase or amylase. • Symptoms: Malabsorption of nutrients, weight loss, diarrhea, and fat in stools. • Solution: Enzyme supplements and dietary adjustments.

25. Disorders of Enzymes Glycogen Storage Disorder Cause: The body stores glucose as glycogen for energy. When crucial enzymes are missing or malfunctioning, glycogen builds up in organs or isn’t used properly, disrupting energy production. Symptoms Muscle weakness, making it hard to walk, climb stairs, or even breathe properly. Low blood sugar, leading to shakiness, tiredness, or dizziness, especially after skipping meals. · ? Enlarged liver, causing a bloated or swollen belly. · ? Difficulty gaining weight or growing properly in children. Solution · Physical therapy to strengthen muscles and improve mobility. · Frequent small meals with foods that provide slow-releasing energy, like cornstarch or high-protein snacks.

26. Conclusion Enzymes play a vital role in the biological system. They catalyze and speed up chemical reactions, converting substrates into products. Enzymes are essential for the process of digestion, DNA replication, and metabolism.

27. Fun Facts Enzymes can be reused The fastest enzyme can catalyze up to one million reactions per second

30. 1. What are enzymes made up of? 2. Can enzymes be reused? 3. How do enzymes work? 4. Name two uses of enzymes.

31. References Specialized proteins which function as biological catalysts, to increase chemical reactions in organisms by lowering the activation of energy required for the catalysts to take place. (Nelson & Cox, 2017) Mukherjee, S. (2021, November 11). Enzyme: Definition, Types, Structure, Functions, & Diagram. Science Facts. https://www.sciencefacts.net/enzyme.html Cyr, K. J. (2023, February 19). Types of Enzyme Deficiency. Verywell Health. https://www.verywellhealth.com/types-of-enzyme-deficiency-6374191 Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science. Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., & Gatto, G. J. (2002). Biochemistry (6th ed.). W. H. Freeman and Company. Hallett, M. T., & Knipe, D. M. (2014). Enzyme Functionality and Biochemical Pathways. Springer Science. Malmquist, S., & Prescott, K. (n.d.). Human Biology. Pressbooks. https://open.lib.umn.edu/humanbiology/ OpenStaxCollege. (2012, August 22). Biology. Pressbooks. https://pressbooks- dev.oer.hawaii.edu/biology/