REFERENCE- Building skins in the age of information

1. B BU UI IL LD DI IN NG G S SK KI IN NS S I IN N T TH HE E A AG GE E O OF F I IN NF FO OR RM MA AT TI IO ON N T TE EC CH HN NO OL LO OG GY Y By Yomna Saad ElGhazi A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY GIZA, EGYPT May, 2009

2. B BU UI IL LD DI IN NG G S SK KI IN NS S I IN N T TH HE E A AG GE E O OF F I IN NF FO OR RM MA AT TI IO ON N T TE EC CH HN NO OL LO OG GY Y By Yomna Saad ElGhazi A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING Under The Supervision of Dr. Tarek AbdEl Raouf Mohamed Dr. Aly Hatem Gabr Doctor Professor Doctor Department of Architecture Department of Architecture Cairo University Cairo University FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY GIZA, EGYPT May, 2009

3. B BU UI IL LD DI IN NG G S SK KI IN NS S I IN N T TH HE E A AG GE E O OF F I IN NF FO OR RM MA AT TI IO ON N T TE EC CH HN NO OL LO OG GY Y By Yomna Saad ElGhazi A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING Approved by theExamining Committee Prof. Dr. Aly Hatem Gabr, Thesis Main Advisor Professor Doctor, Department of Architecture, Cairo University Prof. Dr. Mohamed Moemen Gamal Eldin Afify Professor Doctor, Department of Architecture, Cairo University Prof. Dr. Manal Ahmed Abu-El Ela Associate Professor Doctor, Department of Architecture, Banha University FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY GIZA, EGYPT 2009

4. ABSTRACT As a principle element of architecture, technology has allowed for the wall to become an increasingly dynamic component of the built environment. The traditional connotations and objectives related to the wall are being redefined: static becomes fluid, opaque becomes transparent, barrier becomes filter and boundary becomes borderless. Combining smart materials, intelligent systems, engineering, and art can create a component that does not just support and define but significantly enhances the architectural space. This study focuses on the design of the building membrane where technology and performance are addressed through a broader cultural position, establishing a continual dialogue between the surface, its function and its larger human context. The emergence of the new ‘Information Age’ has suggested ‘Building Skins’ which are more intelligent and interactive where the "Intelligent Facade" is seen as a central element in the evolution of building form to provide environmental control and comfort. The thesis describes the background of bioclimatic architecture and goes on to give an outline of the subject of intelligent skins for buildings redefining the intelligent architecture in the light of available technology. The thesis gives an overview on interactive façades to demonstrate how architects and interaction designers have used similar technology to turn building surfaces into socially engaging architectural elements and discusses the concepts of skin adaptability both physically and socially. Intelligent building skins are envelopes for the information age that strives to combine the best use of information with the best use of resources showing us the way to deliver the buildings that we will need to address the exciting challenges and opportunities of the twenty-first century. Keywords: Building skins, dynamic forms, intelligent skins, media facades Interactive surface, Socially engaging surfaces. - i -

5. LIST OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................i LIST OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................ii LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................viii LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................xvi INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................xvii Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING SKIN 1.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1 1.2 THE ENVELOPE'S FUNCTIONAL ROLE ............................................................1 1.2.1 Psychological Role..................................................................................................1 1.2.1.1 Safety and Security.............................................................................1 1.2.1.2 Privacy and Stability..........................................................................2 1.2.2 Environmental Role...........................................................................................3 1.2.3 Information Role................................................................................................3 1.3 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE EXTERNAL SKIN..............................................4 1.3.1 Antiquity Stage....................................................................................................4 1.3.1.1 Ancient Egyptian Architecture (2900- 700 B.C).......................4 1.3.1.2 Greek Architecture (650 — 30 B.C.)............................................7 1.3.1.3 Roman Architecture (300 B.C- AD 365).....................................8 1.3.2 Advanced Stage (Till Middle Ages).............................................................10 1.3.2.1 Early Christian.....................................................................................10 1.3.2.2 Byzantine Empire (300-540)........................................................... 11 1.3.2.3 Islamic Architecture (622-1600)....................................................12 1.3.3 Technical Stage (20th Century Architecture)..........................................15 1.3.3.1 Industrial period (1840-1900) ........................................................16 1.3.3.2 Modernity Period (1900-1945) ......................................................17 1.3.4 Second half of the 20th century Period (1945-2000) ...........................18 1.3.4.1 Postmodernism (1980-present).......................................................19 1.3.4.2 Late modernism...................................................................................21 1.4 THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION IN ARCHITECTURE .....................................................................................................................23 1.4.1 The Paradigm shift of information age ....................................................23 1.4.1.1 Media and Digital Screens...............................................................25 1.4.1.2 Intelligent Architecture.....................................................................27 1.4.2 The Façade in the IT age ................................................................................28 1.5 CONCLUDING SUMMARY..........................................................................................31 - ii -

6. Chapter 2: PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CONTEMPORARY SKINS 2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................33 2.2 STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF THE BUILDING SKIN ....................................33 2.2.1 Load-bearing and non load-bearing skin structures ..........................34 2.2.1.1 Post-and-beam façade........................................................................34 2.2.1.2 Post façade............................................................................................35 2.2.1.3 Beam façade.........................................................................................35 2.2.1.4 Curtain wall..........................................................................................36 2.2.2 Areas of Construction.......................................................................................36 2.2.3 Grid and Positioning of the Façade within the Building.....................38 2.3 THE FORM OF SURFACE............................................................................................41 2.3.1 The Composition and Detailing of the Building Surface ...................44 2.3.1.1 Shape......................................................................................................45 2.3.1.2 Mass/Size..............................................................................................49 2.3.1.3 Scale........................................................................................................50 2.3.1.4 Proportion..............................................................................................50 2.3.1.5 Rhythm...................................................................................................51 2.3.2 Physical design features ..................................................................................51 2.3.2.1 Surface complexity ............................................................................51 2.3.2.2 Silhouette complexity........................................................................53 2.3.2.3 Facade Articulation ..........................................................................54 2.4 MATERIALITY OF SURFACES ................................................................................55 2.4.1 Opaque Materials...............................................................................................56 2.4.2 Transparency.......................................................................................................63 2.4.3 Translucent...........................................................................................................66 2.5 SKIN ORNAMETATION ...............................................................................................70 2.5.1 Ornaments' Role in Architecture.................................................................72 2.5.2 Building expression............................................................................................72 2.5.2.1 Pattern-making phenomenon...........................................................72 2.5.2.2 Ornament as Contingent: Décor and Communication ............73 2.5.2.3 Ornament as Necessary: Affect and Sensation...........................73 2.6 CONCLUDING SUMMARY..........................................................................................78 - iii -

7. Chapter 3: INTELLIGENT SKINS 3.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................80 3.2 INTELLIGENT SKINS.....................................................................................................80 3.2.1 The Need for Intelligent Buildings..............................................................80 3.2.2 Historical Models of Building Intelligence...............................................82 3.2.3 Definitions of Intelligent Building................................................................82 3.2.3.1 Intelligent Buildings: the Evolving Models................................85 3.2.3.2 The Intelligent Façade.......................................................................86 3.2.3.3 Intelligent design.................................................................................87 3.2.4 Objectives of Intelligent Skin.........................................................................88 3.3 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENT ARCHITECTURE CONCEPTS...................................................................................................................................88 3.3.1 Natural Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence......................................89 3.3.1.1 Artificial intelligence.........................................................................90 3.3.1.2 Artificial Neural Networks...............................................................91 3.3.2 Human Intelligence Characteristics ...........................................................92 3.3.2.1 The Human Skin.................................................................................92 3.3.2.2 The Brain...............................................................................................95 3.3.2.3 Natural responding systems: Autonomic and somatic response........................................................................................96 3.3.3 Intelligence Attributes......................................................................................97 3.3.3.1 Collecting data concept.....................................................................98 3.3.3.2 Building management systems concept .......................................98 3.3.3.3 Autonomic respond concept............................................................99 3.4 INTELLIEGNT BUILDINGS CONTROL SYSTEMS........................................99 3.4.1 Automated Building Control Systems........................................................100 3.4.1.1 Measuring and collecting data (Inputs)........................................103 3.4.1.2 Information Processing Application and Analysis....................106 3.4.1.3 Outputs (Responses)..........................................................................108 3.4.1.4 Time Consideration............................................................................109 3.4.1.5 Learning Ability..................................................................................109 3.4.2 Automated Facade Components ..................................................................109 3.5 CONCLUDING SUMMARY..........................................................................................112 - iv -

8. Chapter 4: INTELLIGENT CLIMATIC SKINS 4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................113 4.2 HUMAN COMFORT.........................................................................................................113 4.2.1 Comfort factors as parameters for building skin design ...................114 4.2.2 Comfort and energy-related parameters of the building skin..........117 4.3 TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS OF SINGLE SKIN FAÇADE.................119 4.3.1 Sunscreen Systems.............................................................................................119 4.3.1.1 Fixed External Shading....................................................................123 4.3.1.2 Operable External Shading..............................................................125 4.3.1.3 Intelligent feature: Sun controllers................................................127 4.3.2 Lighting Systems.................................................................................................129 4.3.2.1 Choosing Building Forms to Enhance the Daylighting of Building Interior................................................................................................131 4.3.2.2 Light-redirecting systems ................................................................132 4.3.2.3 Anti-glare systems .............................................................................135 4.3.2.4 Intelligent feature: Daylight controllers......................................137 4.3.3 Ventilation Systems...........................................................................................138 4.3.3.1 Ventilation Concepts.....................................................................140 4.3.3.2 Intelligent Feature: Ventilation controllers................................143 4.3.4 Energy Systems...................................................................................................144 4.3.4.1 Types of Collectors............................................................................145 4.3.4.2 Integration of solar systems into the building skin...................147 4.4 TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS OF DOUBLE-LAYERED SKIN............150 4.4.1 Types of Construction......................................................................................153 4.4.2 Partitioning of the façade................................................................................153 4.4.2.1 Box windows........................................................................................154 4.4.2.2 Shaft-box facades................................................................................156 4.4.2.3 Corridor facades .................................................................................157 4.4.2.4 Multi story facade ..............................................................................158 4.4.3 The Components of Double Skins Façades and Passive Design......160 4.4.3.1 Natural Ventilation...............................................................................................160 4.4.3.2 Solar Heat Gain.......................................................................................................161 4.4.3.3 Daylighting................................................................................................................162 4.4.3.4 Heat extraction double-skin façades ............................................163 - v -

9. 4.4.4. Technical description.......................................................................................163 4.4.4.1 The exterior and interior glazing....................................................164 4.4.4.2 The air cavity between the exterior and interior glazing.........164 4.4.4.3 The shading device.............................................................................165 4.4.5 Advantages............................................................................................................165 4.5 CONCLUDING SUMMARY..........................................................................................166 Chapter 5: INTELLIGENT KINETIC SKIN 5.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................168 5.2 KINETIC ARCHITECTURE.........................................................................................169 5.3 MOVEMENT OF THE OUTER SKIN.......................................................................170 5.3.1 Physical Kinetic Process..................................................................................170 5.3.2 Classification of Physical Process ................................................................171 5.4 CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENT KINETIC SKIN.................................................171 5.4.1 Design Parameters for Kinetic Skins..........................................................172 5.4.1.1 On sampling .........................................................................................173 5.4.1.2 On control.............................................................................................173 5.4.2.3 On tectonics..........................................................................................173 5.4.2 General Kinetic Typologies in Architecture............................................174 5.4.2.1 Embedded kinetic structures............................................................174 5.4.2.2 Dynamic Kinetic Structures.............................................................175 5.4.2.3 Deployable kinetic structures..........................................................176 5.4.3 Control Mechanism in Kinetic Architecture...........................................177 5.4.3.1. Direct Control ....................................................................................177 5.4.3.2. Input Control.......................................................................................178 5.4.3.3. Multi Input Control...........................................................................178 5.4.3.4. Ubiquitous Multi Input Control ....................................................178 5.4.3.5. Intelligent (Multi-input) Control ..................................................178 5.4.4 Intelligent Kinetic Façade Components....................................................179 5.5 INTELLIGENT KINETIC STRUCTURE................................................................180 5.5.1. Structural Engineering...................................................................................180 5.5.2 Adaptability of Kinetic Structures..............................................................181 5.5.3 Motion Mechanisms..........................................................................................181 - vi -

10. 5.6 INTELLIGENT KINETIC SURFACE.......................................................................187 5.6.1 Surface Prototypes.............................................................................................189 5.6.1.1 Aegis Hyposurface.............................................................................189 5.6.1.2 FLARE Façade...................................................................................190 5.6.1.3 Disk Surface.........................................................................................192 5.6.1.4 Robotic Membrane.............................................................................192 5.6.1.5 PixelSkin (Type 1)..............................................................................193 5.6.1.6 PixelSkin (Type 2) ............................................................................194 5.6.1.7 Mechanized Mashrabiya ..................................................................195 5.7 SMART MATERIALS.......................................................................................................196 5.7.1 Property-Changing Material (Type One).................................................200 5.7.1.1 Color-changing Materials (Chromics)..........................................200 5.7.1.2 Phase-Changing Materials (PCMs)...............................................203 5.7.1.3 Rheological Property-Changing Materials..................................203 5.7.1.4 Other Property-Changing materials...............................................204 5.7.2 Energy-exchanging Material (Type two)..................................................205 5.7.2.1 Light-Emitting Materials..................................................................205 5.7.2.2 Photovoltaic Technologies (Solar Cells) and LEDs.................206 5.7.2.3 Piezoelectric Materials......................................................................208 5.7.2.4 Thermoelectric and Electrostrictive Materials...........................208 5.8 SURFACE ORNAMENTAION.....................................................................................208 5.8.1 Architecture as Iconographic Information Surface...........................209 5.8.2 Digital Media as Ornament in Contemporary Architecture Facades...210 5.8.2.1 Programmed boards ...........................................................................212 5.9 CONCLUDING SUMMARY..........................................................................................215 Chapter 6: SOCIO-CULTURAL SKIN 6.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................217 6.2 ANTECEDENTS OF URBAN DISPLAY..................................................................217 6.3 THE SOCIAL ASPECT OF THE FAÇADE............................................................219 6.4 INTERACTIVE SKINS.....................................................................................................222 6.4.1. Media Façade.......................................................................................................223 6.4.1.1 Marriage of commercial and artistic content..............................229 6.4.1.2 Embedding screens in architecture................................................230 6.4.1.3 Interactive Displaying screens (non commercial).....................233 6.4.2. Intelligent Interactive Skins..........................................................................238 6.5 CONCLUDING SUMMARY .........................................................................................242 Chapter 7: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS......243 7.1 CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................................243 7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................................246 7.3 PROSPECTS OF FUTURE RESEARCH..................................................................246 BIBLOGRAPHY.........................................................................................................................248 - vii -

11. LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1.1: Steps in the evolution of the building envelope, (http://www.wbdg.org). Fig. 1.2: Façade environmental role fulfill various requirements,(Knaack, 2007). Fig. 1.3: The second pylon of the temple of Isis at Philae. (Wilkinson, 2005). Fig. 1.4: Egyptian column capitals, (http://www.biblepicturegallery.com). Fig. 1.5: Bas-relief various gods and pharaohs on the facade of the funeral temple of Hapsheput, near Luxor, (Goodenough, 1997). Fig. 1.6: Bas-relief of the god Horus at his temple in Edfu. (Goodenough, 1997). Fig. 1.7: The facade of the small structure known as Temple C, East Karnak, (Wilkinson, 2005) Fig. 1.8: Deir el Bahari, North Egypt, 18th Dynasty, 1500B.C, (http://wikitravel.org/ en/ Luxor/West_Bank). Fig. 1.9: Theoretical reconstruction of the entrance to the Acropolis, Athens, (Moffett ,et al, 2003) Fig. 1.10: Great Temple in Agrigento, (http://www.planetware.com ) Fig. 1.11: The Parthenon's facade. (Moffett et al., 2003), (http://www.freebase.com) Fig. 1.12: The Romans orders of architecture, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite, (http://www.the-romans.co.uk). Fig. 1.13: The Arch of Constantine, Rome. (Moffett et al., 2003). Fig. 1.14: Pantheon, Rome. (Moffett et al., 2003). Fig. 1.15: The exterior of the Coliseum, Ancient Roman Architecture, Rome, Italy. (www.worldofstock.com ). Fig. 1.16: Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. (Moffett et al., 2003). Fig. 1.17: S.Apollinare in classe, Ravenna, 532-49. (Moffett et al., 2003). Fig. 1.18: The Fatimid Period Mosque of El-Hakim in Cairo. (http://www.touregypt.net). Fig. 1.19: a)Exterior view for the Khanqah and Mausoleum of Sultan Faraj Ibn Barquq great portals. b) Portal of the mosque Sultan EL Mu’ayyad, ( www.touregypt.net). Fig. 1.20: The making of a typical Islamic pattern. (Michell, 1995). Fig. 1.21: Stone calligraphic bands, both linear and circular, proclaim the word of God on the facade of the mosque of al-Aqmar, Cairo. (Michell, 1995). Fig. 1.22: Undulating bands of carving carry the Qur'anic message around the base of the Qutb Minar, Delhi, (Michell, 1995). Fig. 1.23: Front view of London's Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton (http://commons.wikimedia.org ). Fig. 1.24: Seagram Building in New York (1958) designed by Mies van der Rohe. (http://via- verlag.com ). Fig. 1.25: Lever House, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (1951-1952) (http://en.wikipedia.org) . Fig. 1.26: Philip Johnson's AT&T Headquarters. Fig. 1.27: Mathias Lingers, Messe Skyscraper, Frankfurt, 1983-5. Fig. 1.28: Centre Pompidou, France by Richard Rogers & Renzo Piano, 1971-1977, (http://www.galinsky.com/ ). Fig. 1.29: Public Library, Seattle by Architects Rem Koolhaas, OMA, (http://www.seattleprimategenomics.com). Fig. 1.30: Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain, 1997, Frank Gehry, (http://www.wayfaring.info ) Fig. 1.31: Max Reinhardt Haus,1992, Berlin, Germany designed by Eisenman. Fig. 1.32:Transparent mediafacade at the T-Mobile Headquater Bonn, (http://ledlightray.com/tag/facade/ ). Fig. 1.33: James Law’s High Tech ‘Cybertecture Egg’ for Mumbai, 2010, (http://www.inhabitat.com/ ). - viii -

12. Fig. 1.34: The stages of transformation of the building Skin Fig. 2.1: Post-and-beam facades consist of storey-high posts linked by horizontal beams, (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.2: Post construction, (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.3: Beam façade constructions in which only beams are used require a vertical suspension system to bear the weight of the façade, (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.4: SK T-Tower finished with retractable curtain wall, (http://www.emotionalcities.com/blog). Fig. 2.5: Schematic representation of the elements of façade construction, (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.6: Diagrams show further examples of loadbearing systems for metal and glass façades. (Knaack, 2007). Fig, 2.7: Facade load transfer. (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.8: Primary and Secondary Grids. (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.9: The facade's position, (Knaack, 2007). Fig. 2.10: The "endless" volume of the Sendai Mediatheque — conceived as a fluid space of real and virtual information. (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006) Fig. 2.11:The Carson Pirie Scott Department Store. (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006) Fig. 2.12:The envelope of the Banque Lambert headquarters. (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006) Fig. 2.13: The Tod’s building, located on Omotesando. (Jodido, 2006). Fig. 2.14: Form and Energy relationship diagram, (Cody, 2006). Fig. 2.15: The new headquarters of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt designed by architects Coop Himmelb(l)au, (Cody, 2006). Fig. 2.16: Facades are designed to act as wind scoops to channel wind into the atrium of the new headquarters of the European Central Bank, (Cody, 2006). Fig. 2.17: Platonic solids, Le Corbusier's sketch, (Kolarevic, 2005). Fig. 2.18: a) Distinctive shape, b) Cubic shape, c) Cylindrical and pyramidal shapes, d) Circle subtracted from cubic volume, (http://www.wbdg.org/resources/form.php). Fig. 2.19: Greenwich Street Project New York, NY, USA, 2004, (Bahamon, 2005). Fig. 2.20: The new Citroën showroom in Paris, known simply as C42, (Jodido, 2004). Fig. 2.21: Maison folie façade designed by Nox, (Spuybroek, 2004). Fig. 2.22: Model of the ocean folded form Surface. Fig. 2.23: Universal Architecture Studio, Hua Li. Fig. 2.24: The B6/2 Building of the Digital Media city designed by Barkow Leibinger, (http://www.archious.com ). Fig. 2.25: Prada Fashion Shop, Tokyo, 2003, by Herzog & De Meuron. (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006) Fig. 2.26: Different silhouette designs expressed through a wall section with different complexity level, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.27: The facade of The Free University of Berlin designed by Jean Prouvé, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.28: BTV commercial and Residential building, (Bell, 2006). Fig. 2.29: Moneo's extension to the city hall in the southern Spanish town of Murcia built in 1999, (Dernie, 2003). Fig. 2.30: Ehime Prefectural Museum of general science, Niihama City, Japan, 1994, Kisho Kurokawa. (Croft, 2004) Fig. 2.31: Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, At Louis, Missouri, USA, 2001, by Tado Ando Architects & Associates. (Croft, 2004) Fig. 2.32: The Hyperbolic Brick of Eladio Dieste, Church of Christ the Worker, Atlantida, Uruguay, 1958-60, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). - ix -

13. Fig. 2.33: The Cloud Gate - the Bean - sculpture in Chicago's Millenium Park. (http://www.square-mag.co.uk/ ). Fig. 2.34: External Views of the Selfridges Department Store, Birmingham, England, 2003.(Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.35: The Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre by Norman Foster. (http://travel.webshots.com ). Fig. 2.36: Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain, 1997, by Frank Gehry. (http://www.artknowledgenews.com/Guggenheim_Museum_Bilbao.html ). Fig. 2.37: The Signal Box designed by Herzog & De meuron, (http://www.architecture.com )ز Fig. 2.38 Mediatheque in Sendai, Japan by Toyo Ito, (http://www.ninanoor.co.uk/project/ contents/dp.php). Fig. 2.39: Kunstmuseum, Stuttgart New building for the art museum of the City of Stuttgart, (http://www.wernersobek.de). Fig. 2.40: The Maison Hermès, designed by Renzo Piano. (http://www.arup.com ). Fig. 2.41: The new hospital pharmacy in Basle,1999. (http://www.arkitekturmuseet.se/english/ exhibitions/ a_matter_of_art/ ). Fig. 2.42: The Town Hall and Civic Centre of the San Fernando de Henares tapestry factory, (Dernie, 2003). Fig. 2.43: a) Two standard patterns, staggered grid and straight grid, both with round holes. b) Light passing through perforated metal creates light bands of varying intensities. (http://www.architectureweek.com/2006/0920/building_1-2.html) Fig. 2.44: The de Young Museum of Art, designed by Herzog and de Meuron, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.45: Laban Dance Centre, London, 2003, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.46: a) Mansilla+Tuñón invent a geometric patterning for the Museum of Contemporary Art in León, Spain to orchestrate a dreamlike Glass panel “pixels” offer an abstract polycarbonate panels, b) &c) The Aichi Pavilion creates a differentiated affect through patterning, based on a tile unit produced from a module of six regular hexagon each is coded .with its colour. Fig. 2.47: Selfridges Department store, Birmingham, England, 2003. Fig. 2.48: The Beijing National Swimming Center, known as the Water Cube, under construction for the 2008 Olympics. PTW Architects of Australia, (Rappaport, 2006). Fig. 2.49: the Facade of the Water Cube, (Rappaport, 2006). Fig. 2.50: Federation Square in Melbourne, Australia, was designed by Peter Davidson of Lab Architecture Studio in 2003, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.51: The irregular rhythm of the horizontal band of images of varying heights obscure the regular rhythm of floor plates and clearstory window bands, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 2.52: The Library of the Forestry Academy in Eberswalde designed by Herzog & De meuron, 1999, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 3.1: Skidmore Owings and Merrill's office building of 1983 in Hartford, Connecticut, USA, (Wigginton, 2002). Fig. 3.2: Diagram of the layers of human skin, (www.answers.com/topic/skin). Fig. 3.3: a) Our versatile "mantle" provides texture and thickness throughout our body in response to different tasks, b) Humans are genetically "tattoed" with unique fingerprint patterns. (Betancourt, L., 2002). Fig. 3.4: The human eye, Auto focus and self protection. Fig. 3.5: Human natural intelligence is the main source of Artificial intelligence. Fig. 3.6: Automated Building Control Systems. (Fox, M., 2002). - x -

14. Fig. 3.7: Smart sensor system. Fig. 3.8: Prototype smart sensor node. Fig. 4.1: Building skin parameters, (Schittich, C., 2001). Fig. 4.2: The salvation army building after the redesign of the façade, (http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/refuge/index.htm ). Fig. 4.3: Sketches of various exterior shading systems, (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/techno_d.html). Fig. 4.4: Microelectronic Center, Duisburg, Germany, by Foster and Partners (1988 – 1996). (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/techno_d.html). Fig. 4.5: Valencia Congress Center, Valencia, Spain, 1993-1998, by Foster and Partners. (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/techno_d.html). Fig. 4.6: School of Nursing & Student Community Center, Houston, Texas by BNIM Architects and lake/Flato Architects, (http://www.architecture2030.org/regional_solutions/case_studies.html ). Fig. 4.7: The Over hanged Horizontal Shade of the Center for Clinical Science Research, Stanford University, California by Foster and Partners, (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/techno_d.html) . Fig. 4.8: Awning as external operable shading. Fig. 4.9: Shutters as external operable shading. Fig. 4.10: The Embassies of the Nordic Countries in Berlin, Tiergarten, (Bell, V. & Rand, P., 2006). Fig. 4.11: Blinds that can be tilted according to the detected presence of the sun. (Steit, M., 2005). Fig. 4.12: Administration Building in Wiesbaden, (Schittich,C., 2001). Fig. 4.13: Exterior view of phoenix public library, by Will bruder architects, 1995, (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). Fig. 4.14: Detail of tensile shade of phoenix public library. (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). Fig. 4.14: Detail of tensile shade(Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). Fig. 4.15: The headquarters of energy giant Endesa in Madrid : The glass roof enables as much natural daylight as possible, (http://futurearchitectsofworld.blogspot.com/ ) Fig. 4.16: The louvered overhang blocks the direct-beam sunlight, whereas the vertical panel reduces the intensity of the sunlight, (Heerwagen, D., 2003) Fig. 4.17: In summer, when the sun is high in the sky, lightshelves block direct sun at both the upper and lower windows. In winter, low sun can penetrate to the back to the space through the clerestory, pre-heating occupied space in the morning, and providing light when needed. (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/techno_d.html ) Fig. 4.18: Exterior reflectors, (http://www.schorsch.com/kbase/prod/redir/) Fig. 4.19: Lasercut Acrylic Panels, (http://www.schorsch.com/kbase/pr ) Fig. 4.20: Anidolic Mirrors, (http://www.schorsch.com/kbase/pr ) Fig. 4.21: Prism Panels, (http://www.schorsch.com/kbase/pr ) Fig. 4.22: Reichstag, New German Parliament designed by Foster and Partners. (http://www.ecancermedicalscience.com/images/library/ReichstagDomeMichaelPlas meier.jpg ) Fig. 4.23: Business Promotion center, Duisburg, Germany, designed by Fosters and Partners, (http://en.structurae.de/photos/index.cfm?JS=58944) Fig. 4.24: The SUVA building after the modifications by Herzog & de Meuron. (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002) - xi -

15. Fig. 4.25: Close up for the operable windows of the SUVA building. (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002) Fig. 4.26: Single Sided Ventilation, (http://www.dyerenvironmental.co.uk/natural_vent_systems.html) Fig. 4.27: Single Sided Double Opening, (http://www.dyerenvironmental.co.uk/natural_vent_systems.html) Fig. 4.29: Stack Ventilation (http://www.dyerenvironmental.co.uk/natural_vent_systems.html). Fig. 4.30: Administration Building in Wiesbadendesigned by Fielden Clegg, (Poirazis, H., 2004). Fig. 4.31: Passive cooling, (http://www.dyerenvironmental.co.uk/natural_vent_systems.html). Fig. 4.32: Headquarters of Commerzbank designed by Foster and Partners, (Poirazis, H., 2004). Fig. 4.33: The School of Engineering and Manufacture is the largest naturally ventilated building completed in 1993. (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). Fig. 4.34: Building specific uses of solar energy, (Schittich, C., 2001). Fig. 4.35: Types of solar cells, a)Monocrystalline silicon cells, b)Polycrystalline silicon cells, c)Amorphous silicon cells, d)CIS-cells, (Schittich, C.,2001). Fig. 4.36: Different installations for PV-cells on roof Fig. 4.37: Different solutions for PV-cells integration with the façade. Fig. 4.38: SBIC East Building, Tokyo, Japan designed by Petzinka, (Prasad, D. & Snow, M., 2005). Fig. 4.39: Brundtland Centre, Toftland Sonerjyland, Denmark, (www.iea-pvps.org) Fig. 4.41: The Concept of Polyvalent Walls - Proposal by Mike Davis. Fig. 4.42: Comparison of single-skin and double-skin facade construction. (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.43: Classification of Partitioning. (http://www2.ebd.lth.se/ebdhome/avd_ebd/main/personal/Project_home_page/main/D oubleSkinFacades.htm ) Fig. 4.44: Plan of box-window facade. The divisions of the facade intermediate space are set on the construction axes (Poirazis, 2004) Fig. 4.45: Section through typical box-window facade with separate ventilation for each bay. (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.46: Elevation of box-window facade. The divisions between each bay mean that an opening light is also required for each bay. (Poirazis, 2004) Fig. 4.47: Print Media Academy in Heidelburg Germany, Schroder Architeckten and Studio Architekten Bechtloff. (Poirazis, 2004) Fig. 4.48: Plan of shaft-box façade, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.49: Section through a shaft-box façade, (Poirazis, 2004) Fig. 4.50: Elevation of a shaft-box façade, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.51: Plan of a corridor façade, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.52: Section through a corridor façade, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.53: Elevation of corridor facade. (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.54: Dusseldorf city gate, Dusseldorfer, Germany, by Petzinka. (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.55: Plan of a multistory façade, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.56: Section through a multi-story façade, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.57: Elevation of part of a multistory façade, (Poirazis, 2004). - xii -

16. Fig. 4.58: Victoria Life Insurance Buildings, Sachsenring, Cologne, Germany, by Valentyn & Tillmann, Kbln, (Poirazis, 2004). Fig. 4.59: Hybrid mechanical and natural ventilation with double skin façade. (http://www.wbdg.org/design/env_introduction.php). Fig. 4.60: Schematic diagram of heat extraction double-skin façade. (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/techno_d.html). Fig. 5.2: a) BIX electronic skin, b) The Arab Institute façade. Fig. 5.1: Design parameters for kinetic skins, (Moloney, J., 2007). Fig. 5.3: Diagram of kinetic typologies in Architecture, (Fox, 2002). Fig. 5.4: The Starlight Theater, (Kronenburg, 2007). Fig. 5.5: The “expanding geodesic dome” designed by Hoberman Associates, (http://www.hoberman.com). Fig. 5.6: Intelligent system anatomy, (Sherbini & Krawczyk, 2004). Fig. 5.7: The Five Basic Motion Mechanisms, (Fotiadou, 2007). Fig. 5.8: Alcoy Community Hall, (Fotiadou, 2007). Fig. 5.9: The Kuwait Pavillion for Expo ’92, Santiago Calatrava, (Fotiadou, 2007). Fig. 5.10: Drawings for the Kuwait Pavillion in which Calatrava introduced segmented roof pieces that separate and regroup, (Fotiadou, 2007). Fig. 5.11: Milwaukee Art Museum, USA, 1994-2001, by Santiago Calatrava. Fig. 5.12: Hoberman's Iris Dome, whose frame of interlocking spirals closes like the iris of an eye, can be covered with panels to create a retractable roof for theaters or stadiums. (http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumni/Magazine/Spring2006/hoberman.html). Fig. 5.13: Iris Dome expands and retracts within a stable perimeter. (http://www.acadia.org ). Fig. 5.14: The Kinetic Responsive Skylights, (Fox, 2002). Fig. 5.15: Hypersurface, 1999, (Sherbini & Krawczyk, 2004). Fig. 5.16: The metallic surface is separated into small parts that are moved by pneumatic pistons that can that can push out or pull in to create a wide variety of shapes, (http://archrecord.construction.com/features/digital/archives/0205da-2.asp). Fig. 5.17: The FLARE flakes reflect direct sunlight acting like pixels formed by natural light. (http://www.flare-facade.com). Fig. 5.18: The FLARE system consists of a number of tiltable metal flake bodies supplemented by individually controllable pneumatic cylinders, (http://www.flare-facade.com). Fig. 5.19: Illustrative model showing the motion of the surface as response for various external stimuli, (http://www.orangevoid.org.uk) Fig. 5.20: The transformable membrane consists of flat triangular surface-tiles with embedded computation techniques to undergo shape transformation, (http://www.orangevoid.org.uk). Fig. 5.21: An array of the multi-layered electrographic circular pixels that induce images across the outer surface, (http://www.orangevoid.org.uk). Fig. 5.22: The surface consists from number of pixels each one consists of 4 triangular panels that move forming a dynamic pattern, (http://www.orangevoid.org.uk). Fig. 5.23: Illustrative Model for the Pixel Skin, (http://www.orangevoid.org.uk). Fig. 5.24:L'Institut du Monde Arabeby Jean Nouvelarchitect, at Paris, France, 1987 to 1988, a) Mashrabiya diaphragm, maximum opening, b) Mashrabiya diaphragm, maximum closure, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 5.25: Diaphragm dilation sequence (large and small diaphragms), (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 5.26: Wall section inthe envelope of the Institute du Monde Arabe, - xiii -

17. (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig.5.27: Different Input/Output Control models for the Property-changing materials, Energy-exchanging materials and the Biological System, (Addington & Shodek, 2005). Fig. 5.28: Naphthopyrans, (Addington & Shodek, 2005) Fig. 5.29:The memories of touch by using thermochromic materials, (Addington & Shodek, 2005). Fig. 5.30:Illustrating the working method of the electrochromic glass, (Addington & Shodek, 2005). Fig. 5.31:Phase-changing transformation, (Addington & Shodek, 2005). Fig. 5.32:shape memory strands at different states of transformation Fig. 5.33: Comparison between SmartScreen and Jean Nouvel's mechanical solar screen at L'Inistitute du Monde Arabe, Paris, (http://nanoarchitecture.net/file_download/8.) . Fig. 5.34: Las Vegas LED display, the largest in the world, over 1,500 feet long, and is located in Nevada covering the Fremont Street Experience. Fig. 5.35: A building in Matsudo in Japan, (http://www.treehugger.com/files/2006/03/new_building_li.php ). Fig. 5.36: Herzog & DeMeuron's Allianz Arena in Münich, (http://www.cityofsound.com/blog/2008/01/faades-expressi.html ). Fig. 5.37: The low resolution of BIX façade display images stretched across the complex doubly curved surface, (http://infosthetics.com/archives/2005/03/bix_interactive.html). Fig. 5.38: The winning competition entry for the “Espacio de Creación Artística Contemporánea” in Cordoba (Spain) by Nieto Sobejano architects (Madrid), (http://www.mediaarchitecture.org/2008/page/2/ ). Fig. 5.39: The Galleria West shopping center in Seoul by UN Studio. 4,330 computer-programmable glass discs, each roughly 71cm in diameter, ( http://www.cityofsound.com ). Fig. 6.1: Types of users. Fig. 6.2: Public Space as Interaction field. Fig. 6.3: Tower of Winds, Yokohama, Japan, (http://www.architecture.com). Fig. 6.4: The Tower of Winds produces a dematerialized affect by cladding an existing cooling tower with layers of lighting, (Moussavi & Kubo, 2006). Fig. 6.5: Greenpix, Beijing’s first zero energy media wall designed by Simone Giostra & Partners, (http://www.inhabitat.com/2008/05/19/greenpix-zero- energy-media-wall-lights-up-beijing ) Fig. 6.6: Rundle Lantern will, ( www.mediaarchitecture.org). Fig. 6.7: The Grand Indonesia tower, (http://www.mediaarchitecture.org /the-grand - indonesia-tower/). Fig. 6.8: NASDAQ board in Times Square, (http://travel.webshots.com ). Fig. 6.9: Mischa Kuball, Mega Sign No. 1 at the Mannesmann Office Tower, 1990, (http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/megazeichen/). Fig. 6.10: Mader Stublic Wiermann's designed a lighting display for the Uniqa tower in Vienna. 'Twists and Turns' is a playful work, ( http://www.folly.co.uk/node/868 ). Fig. 6.11: The Dexia tower in Brussels, Belgium, (http://www.cityofsound.com/blog/2008/01/faades-expressi.html). Fig. 6.12: The Arcade installed in the Bibliotheque nationale de France in Paris, (http://performative.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/ ). Fig. 6.13: KPN Tower in Rotterdam, by Renzo Piano, (http://www.pixelsex.org ). - xiv -

18. Fig. 6.14. Body Movies: Co-presence of two realities, (http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/7854/1/7854.pdf ). Fig. 6.15: Christian Moeller's 'Nosy' installation, Osaki City, Tokyo 2006, ( http://www.cityofsound.com/blog/2008/01/faades-expressi.html ). Fig. 6.16: The Chanel Tower in the Ginza district of Tokyo is a true architectural integration of LED technology into a curtain wall. (http://www.mediaarchitecture.org ). Fig. 6.17: A woven stainless steel mesh with integrated LEDs, (Mediamesh) (http://www.arplus.com/arproducts/extenv.htm). Fig. 6.18: Transparent mediafacade at the T-Mobile Headquater Bonn, (http://ledlightray.com/tag/mediaarchitecture/ ). Fig. 6.19: West-facing facade of the GSW Headquarters in Berlin (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). Fig. 6.20: The distinctive colorful west facade by automatically pivoting solar shades, (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). Fig. 6.21: Kiefer Technic Showroom, (http://www.e-architect.co.uk/austria/kiefer_technic_showroom.htm). Fig. 6.22: The detachment of the users in an automated intelligent facade from tactile contact and direct control causes lacking of social engagement, (Wigginton, M. & Harris, J., 2002). - xv -

19. LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: The transition towards intelligent buildings Table 3.2: Benefits of Intelligent Buildings Table 3.3: Some definitions of artificial intelligence, organized into four categories Table 3.4: Examples of how intelligent skin features provide energy efficiency and a superior environment. Table 4.1: Energy gain according to different angle and orientation of photovoltaics installation (100 % =1055 kWh/m2a), (Schittich, 2001) Table 5.1: Physical process Categorization Table 5.2: Sampling of different Type 1 and Type 2 smart materials in relation to input and output stimuli, (Addington & Shodek, 2005) Table 5.3: Characteristics of different types of Color-changing material - xvi -

20. INTRODUCTION External walls are referred to as "facades", in contrast to the fundamental functions of protection from weather and control of the interior climate another aspect takes centre stage is the perception of the building by way of its "face" derived in a roundabout way from Latin lades via the French façade. Whatthis means is something constructed, something that ''looks onto" its surroundings, and perceived from its surroundings as the prime and governing semantic message. ( ) 1 Like any face, its aesthetic features are important, the need of ornamentation to underscore the building identity. The facade also acts as a physical filter (a complex regulatory system to make the inside of the building comfortable) and a social filter. The successful building skin allows the occupant to regulate its psychological and social functions as well as its physical climatic functions. This combination of aesthetic, physical and social functions makes the study of the facade a complex undertaking, requiring architectural and sociological insights, understanding the seen and the unseen of the facade. The building facade marks the transition between outside and inside, between the building and the urban space.They are not limited to the actual space they occupy as part of the entire structure, but also influence the space in and around the building. A facade is the key element when observing a building from the exterior and has impact on the interior. View, lighting, ventilation, user comfort, some building services and possibly loadbearing are all tasks the facade may need to address. Building facade plays an especially important role. First and foremost it provides protection and privacy. But its aesthetic and cultural function is just as important. When seen in context, they characterize the face of a city or town. The facade gives a scale to the entire space around it. Urban space is defined by the building facade, the neighboring building facades, the streetscape, and the environment. No wonder that it draws more attention than any other building component. Harmony should reign between form and function, inside and outside.Facades are an integral element of the entire building with direct relation to design, use, structure and building services. This has decisive impact on the entire design and construction process. A building skin is determined by its dual role: first as environmental screens and second, as a socio- cultural public face of architecture. 1- Herzog, T., Facade Construction Manual, Birkhauser-Publishers for Architecture, Basel & Boston, 2004. - xvii -

21. In recent architecture theory and practice there has been a tendency to refer to exteriors as a skin concealing an interior, as opposed to the traditional and more physical concepts of surface, flatness, and depth. The computer now enables the architect to call his design into life and view it as a flexible and interactive creation. Manuel Gausa states in the dictionary of advanced architecture that "Contemporary architecture replaces the idea of facade with that of skin: an exterior layer mediating between the building and its environment. Not a neutral elevation, but rather an active, informed membrane; communicative and in communication. Rather than walls with holes, technical, interactive skins. Skins colonized by functional elements capable of housing installation and services; capable of receiving and transmitting energies; but also capable of supporting other incorporated layers: overlapping rather than adhesive. Manipulated and/or temporary patches, eruptions, graphics or engravings; but also projected images. Colourful reversible motif and virtual -digital- fantasies aimed at transforming the building into authentic interface between individual and environment; and the facade, into an (inter)active screen, the frictional boundary between the building and a context which changes over time." ( ) 1 RESEARCH PROBLEM Our environment was previously made up of objects; now it consists of information. When architects design buildings, they will have to consider to what degree those buildings function as information carriers and how can they use the information storage, processing and communications technology to shape an intelligent architectural response which in turn will affect urban design strategies and the way social communities work When weaving architecture and electronically applied technology together, their respective properties successfully interchanged to the extent that they mutually create new architectural genetic characteristics for the building skin, one that is in constant flux, generated and regenerated through ever changing content. 1- Ethel Paraona pohl, Piel.skin, 2007, P. 9, http://skinarchitecture.com - xviii -

22. GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS This thesis is an attempt to look at the architectural product not just as a massive non reactive volume but also as an important corresponding member in our real environment, that we all live in. The primary goal of this thesis is to clarify the state-of-the-art of the performance of advanced building skins so that designers can make informed decisions as to the value of these building concepts in meeting design goals for energy efficiency, ventilation, productivity and sustainability. Thus, the overall aim of the thesis is to examine the changes of façade configuration throughout the last century and to achieve an understanding of contemporary external skins, from innovative climate skins to intelligent kinetic skins, analyzing the various roles of the dynamic interactive building skins in the light of available technology that establish a continual dialogue between the surface, function and its larger human context. In order to achieve the overall aim of the research, group of objectives had to be achieved too as: •(O1) Discussing briefly the evolution of architectural envelope since early pre- historic Periods until nowadays forms. •(O2) Evaluating the building’s appearance, taking a good look at the physiological properties of the building skin that are dependent on its structure, sequence of layers, material properties and surface ornamentation before proposing alterations to its dynamic exterior. A successful improvement strategy is one that treats the building as a whole, the form and function of present-day wall and façade constructions are the result of a long process of development, which is closely related to the history of humanity. •(O3) Developing concepts and theories useable as a guideline for architects and planners aimed at reducing the energy consumption used for the acclimatizing of the building, while maintaining or increasing user comfort levels. •(O4) Examining the potential for combining 'soft' processing and communications technology with 'hard' manufacturing and material technology as the next language in architecture. - xix -

23. •(O5) Discovering the aesthetic considerations for dynamicexperiences and the different ideas of reconfigurable building skins to find a common ground between environmental facades and data driven skins. •(O6) Discovering the impact of intelligent skins and media façade in turning building surfaces into socially engaging architectural elements. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK In this thesis, a specific deductive methodology is developed, comprising three major aspects of the façade, the face, the physical filter and the social filter; the thesis consists of three main sections: THE FACE: Chapter one and two include the theoretical study of the building skin design in which many factors have to be evaluated and balanced. In Chapter one a Historical longitudinal approach is conducted to review the historical development of façade design to provide an understanding of the evolution of architectural envelope since early pre-historic periods until nowadays forms. The Historical perspective on the different roles of the façade is taken in the course of time and in order to understand the future of the building skin, it is essential to understand its past. While in Chapter two adescriptive approach is conducted to investigate the changing status of physiological properties of contemporary building skin in architecture from the end of the 19th century until today to achieve a useful conclusion emphasizing the main features of the building skins in the age of information technology. Chapter Two will go through testing boundaries, querying traditional perceptions, searching for new materials and concepts. Design processinvolves the conceptualization, analysis, procurement, and implementation of a façade. This section explains the integrated collaborative design process of the Structure, Surface, Material and Ornament. - xx -

24. THE PHYSICAL: An analytical approach is conducted in the form of a group of activities as reviewing many types of literatures and references including different types of books, periodicals, conference proceedings, various thesis, published and non published essays, papers, internet sites and interviews for inference knowledge and concepts. It explores the various definitions and theories of the category of time based concepts in the fields of architecture. Chapter three, four and five describe the background of intelligent skins and bioclimatic architecture and goes on to give an outline of the subject of intelligent climatic skins and kinetic intelligent skins redefining and shaping an intelligent architectural response to today's technology. The intelligent technological solutions are described in terms of how they conceptually address specific energy-related objectives. THE SOCIAL: An analytical approach is conducted to explore the effect of spatial layering of the facade on the occupant, and if the spaces created by this layering the ones the occupant wants. Chapter six explains the relation between the physical and the social aspects of building skins based on comparative analysis of intelligent skins and media facades. An integrative outlook to interactive surface medium presenting information or action based on the direct participation of both of the viewer, spectator, or the sender. The part of the building that is presented to the outside world. In most cases, it embodies the physical and social filters. The Face It elements regulate between the internal and external spaces. comprises all that The system within the skin whose function is to create comfortable within the building. whole regulatory The physical Filter The Social Filter contact conditions - xxi -

25. The conclusions and the recommendations are interpreted through the analysis of the previous literature review. Building Skins in the Age of Information Technology Introduction to Building Skins Physiological Properties of The Face Contemporary Skins Intelligent Skin The Physical Filter Intelligent Climatic Skin Intelligent Kinetic Skin The Social Filter Socio-Cultural Skin Conclusions & Recommendations - xxii -

26. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The development of architectural facades and ornamentation is a process of continuous evolution. Architecture is always being adopted to meet the needs of people and nations in their religious, political, social, and domestic development. Each notion is reflected in its monuments, shrines, homes and public buildings. The objects we now live with were fashioned and molded by precedents which began in the Paleolithic Age. Throughout history, the spatial envelope's concept differed and changed according to various circumstances as well as the activities that have been done by the human being. Despite the antiquity of the early forms and the adornment with faces, figures, and ornamental detail, they are considered the starting point for the architectural products development from million years. 1.2 THE ENVELOPE'S FUNCTIONAL ROLE The design of the envelope is very complex and many factors have to be evaluated and balanced to ensure the desired levels of thermal, acoustic and visual comfort together with safety, accessibility and aesthetic excellence. The envelope plays a role in almost every building function, either directly or indirectly in its relationship to other building systems. Although there were many forms of the spatial envelopes providing the human's comfort, he was the only social creature who worried about searching for refuge in order to achieve his daily moral needs and necessities, the spiritual or even the social ones. The importance of its functional role could be clarified as follows: 1.2.1 Psychological Role This role can be easily interpreted through the following points: 1.2.1.1 Safety and Security From rain and wind to snow and ice, a building needs to be able to withstand the elements, keeping its residents safe and secure. And, buildings must be designed to protect residents from a variety of fire dangers. (1) 1- Popovec, J., Outside In: Building Envelopes, http://www.multifamilyexecutive.com/industry- news.asp?sectionID=545&articleID=604001 accessed 8-10-2008 - 1 -

27. Security is the material need for preventing robbery or penetration while safety is the incorporeal need for the assurance on the self furthermore to the social safety. Perhaps one of the oldest principles of protection oneself is to create simple shell structures from stacked stones or stacked hewed tree trunks, and to cover these structures with a roof of cantilevered stone slabs or wooden planks, or with wood- or stone shingles. (1) 1.2.1.2 Privacy and Stability Privacy is an inherent human feeling. One needs it in both the personal and the family levels. Stability was a matter of time depending on the users' behavior and needs, where the wander searching for food and a secure place to inhabit in as well. Searching for stability has led to the envelopes' shapes development as well as the beginning, arguably, of clusters forming communities "tribes or clans". a b d c Fig. 1.1: Steps in the evolution of the building envelope: a) A dome shaped hut in Ethiopia combines wall and roof in one material; b) Timber frame and thatched roof, Solomon Islands, c) Packed mud dwellings, Yemen Arab Republic, Peru, d) Masonry wall, Machu Picchu, Peru. (http://www.wbdg.org/design/env_introduction.php) 1- Schittich, C., In Detail: Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Materials, P.18. - 2 -

28. 1.2.2 Environmental Role The fundamental aim of building is to protect people from external climate conditions. In construction, the building skin is the primary subsystem through which prevailing external conditions can be regulated to meet the comfort requirements of the user inside the building. Like the skin and clothing of humans, this raiment, too, fulfils the tasks demanded of it by performing a number of functions made possible by means of the appropriate design and construction. (1) Fig.1.2: Façade environmental role fulfill various requirements.(Knaack, 2007). The kinds of environmental changes depend on the living zones, and the overall climate whether hot or cold. Many endeavors were tried out in order to decrease that danger by various shapes of envelopes. Starting from the natural formation of the rocks, mountains' holes and caves, to the man-made forms of huts and shelters using the natural materials found in his surroundings. 1.2.3 Information Role One of the major roles of the envelope is the ability of the primitive "architect" to express his feelings, thoughts and register his daily adventures in different ways. Many tools and description methods have been used in that field. Surfaces formed by humans have always information served to convey information. This information has portrayed the things that governed social life determined transcendental and religious visions, conveyed objectives and reports: praise to God, hunting or rituals, weddings, wealth and death - all long before writing was available, as an abstract form of communication. (2) 1- Ibid, P.25. 2- Herzog, T., et al, Facade Construction Manual, P.12. - 3 -

29. Murals, paintings, inscriptions and carving sculptures were the various expression methods for marking down the human's experience, wherever we were, inside or outside the living envelopes along the history and still. 1.3 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE EXTERNAL SKIN Man builds a house as shelter from the elements, wind and rain, cold or excessive heat. He wants to create a boundary around his property, create his own private bubble. At first building skins were entirely oriented towards fulfilling specific functions. (1) It didn't take long, however, before people began to decorate the building skin as lovingly as they did their own clothing. It is especially applied to the monuments of different eras and cultures, equally true for elaborately frescoed Greek and Chinese temples or Islamic palaces and mosques. The design of facades in the classic sense, their proportion, fenestration, division by means of architraves, columns and rusticated ashlar stones, has been the main focus of architecture for many centuries. (2) 1.3.1 Antiquity Stage Antiquity Stage is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, a useful introduction to three significant ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean littoral is discussed: 1.3.1.1 Ancient Egyptian Architecture (2900- 700 B.C.) Most of the architectural products were prestigious trying to impress with their volume, style and decorative details. Religious beliefs of eternal life resulted in an impressive sepulchral architecture. Massive, static, and serene architecture emerged from the need to obtain stability in stone walls. (3) The massive sloping exterior walls, containing only a few small openings, as well as the columns and piers that they Fig. 1.3: The second pylon of concealed, were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors. (4) the temple of Isis at Philae, with the adjoining remains of a Roman chapel. (Wilkinson, 2005) 1- Schittich, C., In Detail: Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Materials, P.6. 2- Ibid, P.9. 3- Ancient Egyptian architecture, http://www.aldokkan.com/art/architecture.htm accessed 4-1-2009. 4- Egyptian architecture, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Egyptn-arc.html accessed 1-10-2008. - 4 -

30. Walls were built for symbolism as much as for protection, they play a major Information Role, and the exterior bulky walls were covered with animated images (including hieroglyphs) to facilitate the communication between the microcosmos and the macrocosmos. (1) known only to certain enlightened people. The carvings were of ritualistic value. (2) The inscriptions and illustrations on the temple walls have private meanings Many motifs of Egyptian ornament are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture. Hieroglyphics were decoration as well as records of historic events. Egyptian sculptors possessed the highest capacity for integrating ornamentation and the essential forms of their buildings. From natural objects, such as palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of the lotus, they developed conventionalized motifs. (3) - Walls: Temple walls are immensely thick, of limestone, sandstone, or rarely of granite. The wall faces slope inwards giving a massive appearance crowned with a characteristic cornice. Simplicity and solidity of walls that were obtained by broad masses are the chief characteristics of the Egyptian style. - Openings: Colonnades and doorways, are usually square-headed and spanned with massive lintels. Windows are seldom found in temples as light was admitted through clearstory. - Roofs: Roofs were composed of massive slabs of stone supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns. (4) - Columns: Columns never exceeded six times their own diameter in height, often appear in the fans of papyrus or lotus tied at intervals by bands. The Shapes of column capitals were likewise derived from plants motifs, and the shafts and the capitals were usually connected with five horizontal ties representing the lashings Capitals mostly follow the forms of the lotus (motif of Upper Egypt), the papyrus (motif of Lower Egypt). 1- Wilkinson, R., The complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, P.44. 2- Ancient Egyptian temples, http://www.egypt-tehuti.org/temples.html accessed 12-11-2008. 3- Egyptian architecture, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Egyptn-arc.html accessed 2-11-2008. 4- Ibid. - 5 -

31. Fig. 1.4: Egyptian column capitals. (http://www.biblepicturegallery.com) - Ornament: The decoration of temple walls consisted largely of representations of acts of admiration of the king to his gods, and motifs from the surroundings (palm, papyrus... etc.). The Egyptians were masters in the use of color, since they carried out their schemes of decoration mostly in blue, red, and yellow. Fig. 1.5: Bas-relief various gods and pharaohs Fig. 1.6: Bas-relief of the god Horus at on the facade of the funeral temple of his temple in Edfu. (Goodenough, 1997) Hapsheput, near Luxor. (Goodenough, 1997) Fig. 1.8: Deir el Bahari, North Egypt, 18th Fig. 1.7: The facade of the small structure known as Temple C, East Dynasty, 1500B.C, Karnak. (Wilkinson, 2005) (http://wikitravel.org/ en/ Luxor/West Bank) - 6 -

32. 1.3.1.2 Greek Architecture (650 — 30 B.C.) Greece reflects clearly the foil of Greeks' life. It reflects the democratic life, and the architecture and human (architects used the proportions of the human in their elevations). architecture achieved ideal forms in terms of proportions, regular numerical relationships and rules of geometry. It is more closely to ideas of unity and symmetry which shows the aesthetic role of the facades. (1) The general characteristics of architecture can be explained as:- Architecture of classical relation between The Greek Fig. 1.9: Theoretical reconstruction of the entrance to the Acropolis, Athens. (Moffett un the Greek -Walls: Walls were solidly constructed of blocks of stone or marble, which largely determined their character. Cornices (with proportions) finished the top of the building. well studied Fig. 1.10: Great Temple in Agrigento. (http://www.planetware.com) -Openings: Greek architecture was essentially a trabeated style, and openings were square-headed and spanned by a lintel. Columns were expressly placed close together to support lintels or architraves of stone or marble. Facades of windowless temples are variable by alternation of light and shade, produced by the succession of free-standing columns and the shadows in the openings between them. (2) -Roofs: Roofs were always of timber framing covered with terra-cotta or marble tiling. The Greeks knew the principle of roof truss. 1- Moffett, M. et al, A World History of Architecture, P.39. 2- Analysis of important theme in Greek architecture, http://www.ancientgreece.com/essay/v/analysis_of_important_themes_in_greek_architec/ accessed 2- 2-2009 - 7 -

33. -Columns: Temples were designed one storey high, and columns, with their entablature, comprise the entire height of the buildings. The Orders, which were used as main items in their elevations: The Doric which is the simplest kind of the Orders, the Ionic more slender and the Corinthian (complicated order). -Ornament: Greek ornaments were design with great accuracy, and well studied proportions. These ornaments were the basic architectural ornaments of all the following styles. Fig. 1.11: The Parthenon's facade showing an interpretation of golden rectangles in its proportions - A picture related to Aesthetics. (http://www.freebase.com) 1.3.1.3 Roman Architecture (300 B.C- AD 365). reflects a way of public and private life, borrowing elements from the Greeks and the Etruscans. The organization of the space and the disposition of the buildings create almost a symbolic map of Roman power. Roman architecture is more expansive and more inclusive, balancing different elements in the manner of the symphony that expresses the aesthetic role as well. (1) The general characteristics of the Roman architecture can be explained as:- Roman architecture was an expression of their power. Roman architecture - Walls: The Romans revolutionized wall construction by the use of concrete. This concrete was faced externally with various materials, such as stone, brick, and stucco, and was decorated internally with beautiful marble, and alabaster. - Roofs: Vaults and domes represent the chief architectural change. Timbers frames were used widely in creating the roofs. Ceilings were covered with geometric patterns of octagons and squares in combination. 1-Moffett, M. et al, A World History of Architecture, P.122. - 8 -

34. - Columns: Orders used to articulate the wall, to clarify and dramatize the organization of interior and exterior by a framework of vertical and horizontal divisions: engaged columns, pilasters, arch order, superposed orders both free- standing and applied (engaged), painted architectural membering.(1) Fig. 1.12: The Romans took from the Greeks the three orders of architecture, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, based on different forms of column and the capital which surmounted it, and added a hybrid of their own, known as Composite. (http://www.the-romans.co.uk/public_architecture.htm ) -Ornament: superiority of the Greeks in sculpture and so was painting, and so Greek sculpture in later times, vaults were covered with mosaic, often very coarse in treatment. Fine marble cement was frequently used as a covering to walls and stone columns. The number of columns on the principal façade also is descriptive. The height and thickness of the columns are to be proportional to the width of the temple façade, for example, the height of the column ideally should be nine-and-a-half times its diameter. A temple could be tetrastyle (having four columns on the front), hexastyle (six, Temples of Saturn, Vespasian, Concord, Divine Julius), octastyle (eight, Temple of Castor and Pollux), or decastyle (ten, Temple of Venus and Rome). (2) The Romans recognized the Fig. 1.13: The Arch of Constantine, Rome, This triple-arched form, became an architectural motif for later buildings. (Moffett et al., 2003) 1- Roman Architecture: Foundations, http://www.cartage.org.lb/, accessed 05-1-2009 2-Temple Architecture, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/architecture/templearchitecture.html, accessed 23-11-2008 - 9 -

35. Fig. 1.14: Pantheon, Rome, The greatest of Fig. 1.15: The exterior of the Hadrianic architectural projects. The exterior is Coliseum, Ancient Roman imposing, while the interior is overwhelming. Architecture, Rome, Italy. (www.worldofstock.com ) (Moffett et al., 2003) 1.3.2 Advanced Stage (Till Middle Ages) This review will start from the early Christian period passing by the Islamic civilization until Middle. Generally, this stage was a transition period for the architectural envelope development where most of the effort was for enhancing and developing the design concepts as a result for the religious expansion in this period. (1) 1.3.2.1 Early Christian Early Christian architecture developed a wide variety of models and solutions based on existing architectural forms as: •Emperor's mausoleums served as models for martyr's shrines and the originally secular basilica became the Christian basilica. •In the early days of Christianity as the official religion, existing temples were often rededicated for use as churches. 1-Moffett, M. et al, A World History of Architecture, P.141. - 10 -

36. 1.3.2.2 Byzantine Empire (300-540) east. The predominant impression conveyed by these period's buildings, lightness and elegance unlike the mass and power of the old Roman Empire. The centre of power and hence of architectural development, shifted to the the dome to cover circular, polygonal, and square plans for churches, and tombs. The practice of placing many domes over one building is in strong contrast to the Romanesque system of vaulted roofs. The change from Roman and Early Christian forms was gradual, but in the course of two centuries the East asserted its influence; and though no exact line separates Early Christian and Byzantine styles.(1) The general characteristics of the Byzantine architecture can be explained as:- The character of Byzantine architecture is determined by the development of - Walls: The walls were usually constructed of brick and internally coated with rich colored marbles and shining glass mosaics, which swept from wall to arch and from arch to vault. Externally the walls were comparatively plain and depended largely on the brilliant oriental sunshine which clothed them with a garment of glowing colour. - Openings: Arcades of semicircular arches on monolithic capitals were largely employed in churches. Columns with convex capitals were largely employed in churches Doors and windows are usually spanned by semi-circular arches, segmental, and horse-shoe arches. The encircling ring of windows at the base of the dome or in the "drum" upon which the dome was raised was often the main source of light, in the church. - Roofs: The method of roofing was by domes of brick, stone or further covering. The vaults sometimes are concrete, often with no further covered with sheets of lead. Fig. 1.16: Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. The exterior shows the massive buttresses added later to repair earthquake damage. Minarets were added when the church were converted into a mosque. (Moffett et al., 2003) 1-Moffett, M. et al, A World History of Architecture, P.148. - 11 -

37. Fig. 1.17: Many Byzantine buildings continued the tradition of sober exteriors and rich interiors already seen in Early Christian times. The volume of the basilica and its narthex porch reads clearly. (Moffett et al., 2003) 1.3.2.3 Islamic Architecture (622-1600) One of the most striking features of all Islamic architectural monuments is their focus on the enclosed space, on the inside as opposed to the outside. Islamic architecture was based on several ethical, religious, and climatic bases which resulted in the evolution of significant style characterized by the presence of a court which was probably surrounded by shaded colonnades for the sake of shade, privacy, and protection from intruders. Islamic buildings are introverted so that the main facade is on the inside of the buildings. The Islamic building was Fig.1.18: Mosque of El-Hakim is characterized by the internal facades on constructed of brick with stone facades and the court. On the contrary, the external minarets. It has an irregular rectangular facade was a solid one so as to overcome plan with a rectangular, central, open severe climatic conditions and avoid direct courtyard surrounded by arcades supported by compound piers. The front facade on the solar radiation. Accordingly the external north was given a central projecting and internal facades work together to play monumental portal. the Climatic Role. (http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ha - 12 -

38. The emphasis on inner enclosed space in Islamic architecture is accompanied by a “disregard for the outside appearance of a structure” by completely hiding it by “secondary adjacent buildings. This ‘hiding’ of major monuments goes hand in hand with a total lack of exterior indication of the shape, size, function or meaning of a building. Even if a structure has a visible façade or a portal, these features tell us little, about the building that lies behind it. In other words, “Rarely does a façade give any indication of the inner organization or purpose of the building in question, and it is rare that an Islamic building can be understood, or even its principal features identified, by its exterior.” (1) Domes loom over the mass of a building can be seen from afar, yet as one approaches the dome, it seems to “sink into the maze of small cupolas and roofs of surrounding structures.” Hidden architecture is the architecture that truly exists, not when seen as monument or symbol visible to all and from all sides, but only when entered, penetrated and experienced from within. (2) The general characteristics of the façade in the Islamic architecture can be explained as:- - Walls: They were of brick or stone according to locality, and were often covered with delicate surface ornament in plaster, precious stone or glazed tiles. External walls of mosques are often crowned with bold cresting. And the combination of light and shade creates strong contrasts of planes and gives texture to sculpted stone, as well as stocked or brick surfaces.There is exterior display and frontal exposure as the facades are rich in variety of elements and aesthetic compositions. (3) - Openings: Arcades were largely used to provide shade from the sun. Five main types of arches were used; two-centered pointed arch, four-centered or Persian arch, the pointed horses shoe arch, and the ogee arch. Windows are usually small, to suit the hot climate, occasionally grouped together, and generally filled with elaborate stone or marble. The Pierced facades can look like lacy, disembodied screens. Light can add a dynamic quality to architecture, extending patterns, forms and designs into the dimensions of time. (4) There is a lot of aesthetic attention paid to the making of the windows, entrance doors, portals and other elements. 1- Grube, E. & Dickie, J., Architecture of the Islamic World: It History and Social meaning, P.11. 2-The Social Meaning of Islamic Architecture, http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=236 accessed 4-12-2008. 3- Islamic architecture, http://www.salaam.co.uk accessed 4-12-2008. 4- Ibid. - 13 -

39. Fig.1.19: a) Exterior view for the Khanqah and Mausoleum of Sultan Faraj Ibn Barquq great portals. b) Portal of the mosque Sultan EL Mu’ayyad, The muqarnas portal is of grand proportions and is enhanced by a pishtaq, or wall above the entrance that is higher than the others. A conch rests on a large vault where nine tiers of dripping stalactites have been lavishly incorporated. (www.touregypt.net) - Roofs: Roofs were normally either flat or domed while pointed vaults were used occasionally. Domes were widely used in Islamic mosques and tombs. The exterior faces of domes were decorated with elaborate geometrical carved ornament. (1) - Columns: ready-made columns, from old Roman and Byzantine buildings in the locality, were often, utilized for the colonnades of mosques, and as they are of various designs, they naturally produce an incompatible and haphazard effect. The new columns that were designed by Muslim architects were founded on old models varied with the Islamic ornaments (based on Geometrical shapes). - Ornament: Ornaments of natural forms were restricted by the Quran. The Muslim architect perfected a system of decoration in which geometry was the ruling factor. The Muslims covered their principal buildings, inside and outside, with geometrical interlacing patterns. Fig.1.20: The making of a typical Islamic pattern. The circle generates an eight pointed star. By filling in certain areas and leaving others blank, a pattern suitable for tile- making is evolved. (Michell, 1995) 1-Grube, E. & Dickie, J., Architecture of the Islamic World: It History and Social meaning, P.10. - 14 -

40. The concept of Islamic art rests on a basic foundation of calligraphy, geometry and, in architecture, the repetition and multiplication of elements based on the arch. Islamic design may seem restricted to two dimensions but that the very character of Islamic design implies three-dimensional possibilities through the use of reflecting and shining materials and glazes, the repetition of designs, the contrasting of textures and the manipulation of planes. (1) Fig.1.22: Undulating bands of carving Fig. 1.21: Stone calligraphic bands, both linear carry the Qur'anic message around the and circular, proclaim the word of God on the base of the Qutb Minar, Delhi. facade of the mosque of al-Aqmar, Cairo. Such Characteristic of Islamic art is the way in inscriptions are Qur'anic and give meaning to which geometric and foliated designs the building by clarifying its function. mingle with calligraphy. (Michell, 1995) (Michell, 1995) 1.3.3 Technical Stage (20th Century Architecture) This review will start from the Industrial revolution until nearly the 2nd half of the 20th century regardless of the architectural schools or ideologies parallelism and without deep analysis for their architectural products or styles. As architecture was increasingly liberated from the constraints of the load-bearing wall, coupled with advances in glass manufacture and technology, appreciation for light in interior spaces increased as well. (2) 1- Islamic architecture, http://www.salaam.co.uk accessed 4-12-2008. 2- Schittich, C., In Detail: Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Materials, P.9. - 15 -

41. 1.3.3.1 Industrial period (1840-1900) Many construction forms were built using iron techniques, giving lightness and transparency impression of those fragile-looking structures as well as, distinguishing it clearly from masonry structures. In the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution changed the world. New materials and production methods opened up entirely new opportunities - iron and glass conquered architecture. The process of dissolving the building skin - its de- materialization - is directly linked to the progressive independence from its load- bearing function. Functional and commercial demands influenced the increasing openness in urban facades. In the middle of the 19th century, Skeleton construction made it possible to simultaneously open up the external walls with large windows in metal frames. The development of the necessary building technology (steel skeleton construction and elevators) led to the creation of the first high-rise. The logical next step was to use iron and glass in ever more generous expanses on the facades of the new representative office buildings. (1) Fig.1.23: London's Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, Built out of prefabricated and wrought-iron elements, it represents the Beginning of Iron & Glass Architecture. (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal.Palace.Paxton.Plan.jpg ) 1- Ibid. - 16 -

42. 1.3.3.2 Modernity Period (1900-1945) Modernist architects were interested in the meaning of their buildings. They rejected the dark, claustrophobic interiors and what they considered the dishonesty of borrowed styles that proliferated in the architecture of the nineteenth century. A new century, the twentieth century, required a new style of architecture appropriate to the new technology, new constructional systems, materials and way of life that was emerging. The aesthetics of modern architects differed radically. Some architects, enraptured by the powerful machines developed in the late 19th century, sought to devise an architecture that conveyed the sleekness and energy of a machine. Their aesthetic celebrated function in all forms of design. Other architects, however, found machine-like elegance inappropriate to architecture. They preferred an architecture that expressed, not the rationality of the machine, but the mystic powers of human emotion and spirit, (1) calling for an interaction with the Mother Nature and the surrounding environment. The most daring execution of a glass facade in this period is Mies van der Rohe's design for a high-rise in Berlin (1922). (2) Mies re-interpreted the curtain wall and imposed his own aesthetics in the design of the American high-rise facades. As he suspended profiles that had no structural function in front of the facades. For the Seagram Building in New York (1958) he no longer used mass-produced components (the sectioning profiles are now integrated into the glass level). Mies reinforces the visible flanges without giving them Fig.1.24: Seagram Building in New York greater optical weight. He stretches the (1958) designed by Mies van der Rohe. windows in a continuous, uninterrupted (http://via-verlag.com/1344.0.html?&L=1) expanse from floor to ceiling without 1-Modern architecture, http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761595616/modern_architecture.html accessed 4-11-2008 2- Schittich, C., In Detail: Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Materials, P.10. - 17 -

43. horizontal divisions and achieves the decisive verticality of the facades. All glass panes are tinted golden brown through the addition of iron oxide and selenium. The result is that the volume no longer appears transparent and light, but almost opaque. Mies is firmly convinced that the external appearance of a building must be plain and simple, and that the principle visual focus should be provided by the selection of appropriate materials and the careful execution of details. He is obsessed with perfecting certain formal aspects. (1) Fig.1.25: Lever House, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (1951-1952) was one of the earliest steel and glass office towers and the first such tower in New York City. A prototype for a light curtain wall on a high-rise Building. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings,_and_Merrill) -Walls: Crisp geometric forms, light structures, clean smooth surfaces and large windows symbolized their bright new healthy and efficient vision for the future, which new technology and mass production would make available to everyone. ( ) 2 Colin Rowe came to deplore the lack of 'face' in most of modern architecture; that crucial 'metaphorical plane of intersection between the eyes of the observer and what one may dare to call the soul of the building'. - Openings:Both openings and brise-soleils were provided especially the continuous ribbon window openings in the outer walls. The fully sealed façade with no window openings relying on 'conditioned air' was also used in office buildings. - Ornament: Modernism was characterized by an elimination of decoration and ornamentation. This resulted in the idea of 'minimalism' or 'plainness'. (3) By the 1920s, it was clear that Loos's dictum "Ornament is crime" had set the moral tone for the next decades. (4) 1- Ibid. 2- Conway, H. & Roenisch, R., Understanding Architecture: An introduction to architecture and architectural history, P.181. 3- Sebestyen, G., New Architecture & Technology, P.14. 4- McLeod, M., The Surface of Modern Architecture, http://www.arch.columbia.edu/gsap/2303. accessed 12-12-2008 - 18 -

44. 1.3.4 Second half of the 20th century Period (1945-2000) Reinforced concrete, wide-spanning, thin membrane structures, and other progressive construction techniques were more widely available for architects to use with aesthetical flair. Unlike the last period, architects sought prominent, spectacular forms expressing their oppositions to structural and decorative norms and did not take into account the fulfillment of functional requirements. From the mid-sixties onwards, the new method of innovative glazing fixing techniques make it possible to clad the entire building shell (roof and facades) in the same smooth skin. All conceivable geometric forms could now be enclosed with unswerving regularity. The formal eclecticism that followed seemed to respond to the investors' and the clients' demands for unique, image-building structures; however, it became a subject of criticism. Critical voices were raised even more as awareness of energy efficiency increased in the wake of the oil crises of the 1970s, for the smooth, sealed glass containers, were generally just that: encased in glass without operable windows and reliant upon artificial air-conditioning. The curtain wall in its original sense had inevitably reached its limitations. (1) A variety of architectural styles followed the International Style. Each reacted in a different way: Post-Modernism looked back to historic examples; Constructivism questioned traditional orders; and the proponents of High-Tech Design responded with structural components. But all share one common goal; to once again give the building skin a face. (2) 1.3.4.1 Postmodernism (1980-present) In the later part of the twentieth century, designers rebelled against the rationalism followed in Modernist architecture. Postmodernist buildings combine new ideas with traditional forms to startle, surprise, and amuse its viewer. Familiar shapes are metamorphosed in unexpected ways. (3)The resulting Post-Modernism, though largely superficial in its references to the past, did succeed in breaking down the intellectual barrier that existed between the contemporary and the pre-modern. (4) 1- Schittich, C., In Detail: Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Materials, P.9. 2- Rationale, http://www.ninanoor.co.uk/project/contents/dp.php accessed.1-12-2008 3- Modern Architecture Declassified http://www.architecturalevangelist.com/modern- architecture/ modern-architecture-declassified.html accessed 20-11-2008 4- Jodidio, P., New Forms Architecture in The 1990S, P.7. - 19 -

45. Indeed the post-modernist style favoured the use of decoration, symbolism, humour and even mysticism. The proponents of post-modernism were prepared to avail themselves of the use of up-to-date technology, as well as traditional materials. (1) Postmodernism denotes a style or a period; to others it implies a whole new philosophical and critical approach to the world. Postmodernist architecture of the late twentieth century featured a plurality of styles including high-tech, free-style classicism, neo-vernacular, classicism and deconstruction. In many periods and places several styles have coexisted so whether late twentieth-century architectural pluralism is postmodern is debatable. (2) Fig. 1.27: Mathias Lingers, Messe Skyscraper, Philip Fig. 1.26: Johnson's AT&T Frankfurt, 1983-5. While the gridded Headquarters is often referred as an geometry is very Modernist the scale, form, epitome of postmodernism. The skyscraper and references to the red-coloured stones of the has a sleek classical facade with the top local masonry are historicist. being an oversized "Chippendale" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messe-Torhaus ) pediment. (http://www.achievement.org ) 1-Conway, H. & Roenisch, R., Understanding Architecture: An introduction to architecture and architectural history, P.191. 2- Ibid. - 20 -

46. 1.3.4.2 Late modernism Late-Modern architecture in which the images, ideas, and motifs of the Modern Movement were taken to extremes, structure, technology, and services being grossly overstated at a time when Modernism was being questioned. The late modern ‘slick-tech’ look, the faceted glass polyhedron develops the stretched skin surface beyond modernism. The work of Pelli and DMJM shares a lot with John Portman, Norman Foster, Philip Johnson, Arata Isozaki and so many commercial developers who use mirror plate. (1) Generally speaking the surface of these buildings is isotropic and endless, a grid of repeated shapes which might be extended infinitely, but which has, in volume, many subtle variations. (2) High Tech: High-tech buildings make heavy use of construction materials like steel, aluminum, and glass that combine with brightly colored girders, beams, and braces to give it a machine-like look. Most parts of the building are prefabricated in a factory and assembled on-site. The support beams, duct work, and other functional elements are innovatively placed on the exterior facade, which becomes the focus of attention. The interior spaces are open and adaptable for multiple purposes. (3) 'High-tech' is recognized as having a style of its own. However, its elements can be present in all categories of new architecture. Indeed, the conspicuous use of these elements may impart the appearance of an industrial product to a building. The buildings as industrial products become apparent in the aggressive, metallic coated 'Dead Tech' buildings. (4) High-tech features Fig. 1.28: Centre Pompidou, France by are common in neo-modernism and Richard Rogers & Renzo Piano, 1971-1977, deconstructivism, as for example at the Paris (http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/pompid ou/index.htm) Pompidou Centre by Richard Rogers and 1- Jencks. C., The New Moderns: From late to Neo modernism, P.48. 2- Ibid, P.51. 3- Modern Architecture Declassified http:// wwwuralevangelist.com/ modern-architecture/ modern- architecture-declassified.html accessed 24-11-2008 4- Sebestyen, G., New Architecture & Technology, P.14. - 21 -

47. Renzo Piano, is an iconic High-tech building. Its ‘inside-out’ architecture `reveals the inner workings on the exterior façade. (1) Foster and Nouvel enjoy the extreme repetition of prefabricated elements perhaps as mush for their mesmerizing otherness as for the cost. When a pure form is repeated ad nauseum it is not only monotonous but sublime, especially if it is beautifully detailed. (2) to building design that attempts to view architecture in bits and pieces. The basic elements of architecture are dismantled. Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have no visual logic. They may appear to be made up of unrelated, abstract, and disharmonious forms. The Seattle Public Library by Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas is a monumental example of Deconstructivist architecture. (3) Deconstructivism used the geometry of collage, as styles in place of transparency. But style cannot easily adjust to changes in culture. (4) Deconstructivism: It is an approach Fig. 1.29: Public Library, Seattle by Architects Rem Koolhaas, OMA, (http://www.seattleprimategenomics.com ) The deconstructivist influence on the Guggenheim is apparent in the curvilinear façade protrusions of its exterior architecture. With relation to the Guggenheim, the fluidity and playfulness unpredictable curves evoke a sense of adventure and anticipation. Membranes of stainless steel sway, soar and furl in concatenations of filmic skins and part- objects: they have an oneiric magic-carpet quality for they never frontalize, but ever elude the grasp, unfurling and rolling off into the blue California sky. 1- Modern Architecture Declassified, http://www.architecturalevangelist.com/modern-architecture/ modern- architecture-declassified.html, accessed 24-11-2008 2- Jencks. C., The New Moderns: From late to Neo modernism, P.30. 3- Ibid. 4- Moussavi, F.& Kubo, M.; The Function of Ornament, P.6. and awkward of its Fig. 1.30: Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain, 1997, Frank Gehry, (http://www.wayfaring.info ) - 22 -

48. Fig.1.31: Max Reinhardt Haus,1992, Berlin, Germany designed by Eisenman, The building has to assume a "prismatic" character; that is to say, it needs to fold into itself, but also open itself out to an infinite, always fragmentary, and constantly changing array of metropolitan references and relationships. (Eiseman, 1996) 1.4 THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION IN ARCHITECTURE In the technological era of the twentieth century there are a large number of factors influencing the development in the Building Industry. Two of the most popular expressions associated with the Building Industry these days are IT, information Technology and IB, Intelligent Buildings.(1) 1.4.1 The Paradigm shift of the Information Technology age “The Architecture of Change is a paradigm shift that embraces the transience in today’s culture and life in an age that worships change. We are the most news-centric generation ever, ruled by flux and mobility. A new means to help sustain our adaptability in the built world is rapidly emerging and can be termed "The Architecture of Change". It frees us from buildings and environments that are bland boxes made of immutable materials and mute walls. It enables us to design with more emotion, and deliver experiences driven by content and meaning.” (2) The Architecture of Change employs refreshable information, messaging, content, images, transparency, luminosity, activity and digital technologies as key components in shaping social experience. The focus is on people, setting stages for their lives and roles using communication as both message and medium. (3) 1- Implications & Challenges Facing the Intelligent Building Industry, http://www.automatedbuildings.com/news/sep99/articles/tacc/tacc.htm accessed 15-9-2008. 2- Foy, R., Architecture of Change: Design Adjusts to the Age of Flux, http://www.di.net/articles/ archive/2312/ accessed 5-07-2008 3- Ibid. - 23 -

49. Some reasons that may have fueled this resurgence in interactive buildings: ?Historical architecture and archaeology is full with static messaging offering evidence of a need for human expression as part of structures ?Architecture has always seen itself in terms of cultural reflection, ideas and authenticity ?Multimodal information processing via computers and telecommunications is rapidly becoming a cultural norm ?Digital technologies in imaging, communications, projection and interactivity now offer a multitude of architectural applications and modalities with a wide range of costs ?Glass and other non-barrier materials and their necessary supporting systems are easily achievable and affordable ?There are users, sponsors, companies and institutions that seek these channels of communication ?The convergence of all these technologies—the information age culture, economics, communication, art, marketing and commerce—are setting the table for serving up The Architecture of Change ?It is occurring, everywhere, as people speak The paradigm shift of IT was the shift from the mechanical paradigm to the electronic one. Developments in electronic technology and growing collaboration between the fields of Information and Telecommunicationtechnologies have led us to make the most of the possibilities offered by Centralized control systems. Various electronic technologies now adopted the world over must be applied and combined according to new principals and concepts. (1) Yet centralizing information often makes it more complex, because information is like mercury, and will constantly change, morph, and multiply.The entire nature of what we have come to know as the reality of our world has been called into question by the invasion of Media into everyday life. For reality always demanded that our vision be interpretive. Clearly, a change in the everyday concepts of reality should have had some effect on architecture. (2) 1-Travi, V., Advanced Technologies, Buildings in the computer age, P.1. 2-Eisenman, P., Visions unfolding: Architecture in the age of electronic media, Free Spirit in Architecture. P.88-91. - 24 -

50. architectures that have found their expression in highly complex, curvilinear forms that will gradually enter the mainstream of architectural practice in the coming years. What unites digital architects, designers and thinkers is not a desire to "blobify" all and everything, but the use of digital technology as an enabling apparatus that directly integrates conception and production in ways that are unprecedented since the medieval times of master builders. (1) New digital architectures are emerging from the digital revolution, Digitally-generated forms evolve in complex ways and their free-form surfaces curve complexly as well. As exceptions to the norms formal transgressions challenging the rectilinear conventions, these new forms raise profound and necessary questions of an aesthetic, psychological and social nature. (2) changes human history and life style. Since architecture is only a small part of the social evolution. We can only wait to see what drastic socio-cultural changes will emerge in the digital age. (3) Finally, digital architecture can be defined as a revolution. Every revolution 1.4.1.1 Media and Digital Screens Notion of response and media augmented expression are increasingly addressed in contemporary architectural design through incorporating new digital techniques in an attempt to equip architectural surfaces with new forms of expression. (4) a flood of flickering, colourful images. It is fascinating to observe how vastly different the reactions of individual architects are to this particular aspect. Some adapt to these new perceptions and react with equally colourful, serigraphed images on brittle glass, or with flickering media facades and illuminated screens. (5) Others, however, look back to the quality of ancient building materials - massive natural stone or exposed concrete, untreated timber and brick masonry, to demonstrate the solid physical presence of a building in an increasingly virtual world. Between these extremes, lies a third, equally contemporary path: the building skin as a responsive skin, as one component of a sustainable low-energy concept. (6) In the fast-paced information age, our perception has also changed, marked by 1-Kolarevic, Branko, Architecture in the digital age: Design and Manufacturing, Taylor & Francis, P.4. 2-Ibid. same page. 3-Yu-Tung Liu, The Philosophy of Digital Architecture: The FEIDAD Award http://architettura. supereva.com/extended/20060513/index.htm accessed 12-9-2008. 4-Anshuman, S. & Kumar, B., Intelligent Building Facades, Beyond Climatic Adaptivity, P.1. 5-Schittich, C., In Detail: Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Materials P.9. 6- Ibid, same page. - 25 -