LANE 424 Seminar in Linguistics

1. LANE 424Seminar in Linguistics

2. Course Description This course provides an overview of the study of bilingualism both as an individual and a social phenomenon. It gives an overview of the most relevant themes of bilingualism. The course encourages students to draw on their own experiences (as bilinguals) to achieve a better understanding of the issues discussed.

3. Course content • Bilingualism: Definitions and dimensions • The Measurement of bilingualism • Endangered Languages: Language planning • Languages in society • The early development of bilingualism • The later development of bilingualism

4. Course objectives • Upon completion of this course, students should demonstrate: • An understanding of the different dimensions and types of bilingualism. • An understanding of why and how bilingualism is measured individually and in the society. • An understanding of the different types of language contact situations (e.g. Language shift/maintenance) and their potential outcomes and impact on language development and use by the individual and the society. • The ability to analyse and discuss different factors (political, social, demographic, cultural, cognitive and linguistic) influencing situations of language contact. • An awareness of various aspects of and routes to early and late development of bilingualism.

5. Prescribed textbook Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of Bilingual Education And Bilingualism. 4th Edition • Chapters 1-6

6. Classifying Bilinguals • Bilinguals are classified on the basis of a number of dimensions, including: • a. Age (simultaneous/sequential/late) • b. Ability (incipient/receptive/productive) • c. Balance between to languages in terms of use • d. Language Development (ascendant: the second language is developing; recessive: the first • language is declining) • Contexts of language use (home/work/public gathering/school/college).

7. Types of bilinguals • simultaneous bilingualchildren learn two languages at birth, aka infant bilingualism or ‘bilingual first language acquisition.’ Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will become simultaneous bilinguals. • consecutive/sequential bilingualchildren learn a second language after about three years of age. Learning one language after already established a first language. This is the situation for all those who become bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual earlier in life. • incipient bilingual An individual at the early stages of bilingualism where one language is not fully developed. • have one well-developed language • other is in the early stages of development:

8. Types of bilinguals • ascendant bilingualthe second language is developing: The speaker whose ability to function in a second language increases with its use is in  • recessive bilingualismone language is decreasing: An individual who begins to feel some difficulty in either understanding or expressing him or herself with ease, due to lack of use. • endogenous communitiesmore than one language used on an everyday basis • exogenous communitiesabsence of a second language • Passive/receptive bilingualbilinguals with a receptive ability, i.e. understanding or reading: An individual who understands a second language, in either its spoken or written form, or both, but does not necessarily speak or write it.

9. Types of bilinguals • additive bilinguala person learns a second language at no cost to their first language: An individual whose two languages combine in a complementary and enriching fashion. • subtractive bilingualthe first language is being replaced by the second language: An individual whose second language is acquired at the expense of the first language. • elective bilingual • choose to learn a language, e.g. in a classroom • typically come from majority language groups • learn second language without losing first • circumstantial bilingualism • learn another language to function effectively because of circumstances, i.e. immigrants.  • first language insufficient to meet their educational, political, and employment requirements and the communicative needs of the majority language society • first language in danger of being replaced by second

10. Types of bilinguals • minimal bilingualismpeople with minimal competence in a second language are also considered bilinguals: An individual with only a few words and phrases in a second language. • maximal bilingualismonly people with “native-like control of two or more languages” are considered bilinguals. • Semilingual An individual with insufficient knowledge of either language • deficiencies in bilinguals when compared with monolinguals • small vocabulary and incorrect grammar • consciously thinking about language production • stilted and uncreative with each language  • finding it difficult to think and express emotions in either language

11. Types of bilinguals • balanced bilingualsomeone equally fluent in two languages across various contexts • Early bilingual An individual who has acquired two languages early in childhood • Functional bilingual An individual who can operate in two languages with or without full fluency for the task in hand. • Late bilingual An individual who has become a bilingual later than childhood.

12. Language ability • Language Ability is often used as an umbrella term. • language ability is distinct from language achievement. There are four basic language abilities: listening, speaking, reading and writing. These abilities fit into two dimensions: receptive and productive; oracy and literacy.

13. Language ability

14. An individual's use of bilingualism Language Targets: Family; colleagues; friends; teachers Language Domains: Shopping; media; cinema; theatre; ICT

15. :Chapter 2The measurement of bilingualism • Why measuring bilinguals? For what purposes? • Distribution • Selection • Summative • Formative

16. Measuring bilinguals • The assessment of bilinguals in school: 2 methods: • (1) Language proficiency tests: (a) Norm referenced test NRT: Compare one person with others (e.g. with a national or regional average). Example: IQ test (b) Criterion referenced test CRT: measure how well a person has learned a specific body of knowledge and skills. What a student can and cannot do. Advantages of CRTs? • point of comparison • providing direct feedback into teachers decisions; • locating children needing support; • …….

17. Measuring bilinguals (2) Self-rating on proficiency (four language abilities)

18. Measuring bilinguals Limitations/problems in measuring bilinguals: • E.g. Ambiguity • context • social desirability • …..

19. Measuring bilinguals • Communicative language testing: • Measuring a person's use of language in authentic situations (real communicative situations; e.g. in a shop, at home, at work; …) • Testing communicative competence (e.g. IELTS; p. 29)

20. Measuring bilinguals • Measurement of bilinguals in research: • Language background scales: Who speaks what language to whom and when? (p. 32) • Measures of language balance and dominance (p. 34): • Seeks to measure the language strength of a bilingual person. • How? E.g. A word association task.

21. Measuring bilinguals • Language censuses: • See for example US census language question; • “Does this person speak a language other than English at home?” • “How does this person speak English? (Very well, Well, Not well, Not at all)” • Conclusion • See key point in Chapter 2 (p. 40)