Topic 1: The Process of Socialisation

2. Topic 1: The Process of Socialisation

5. Socialisation is the process whereby individuals learn the shared norms and values around them. For Functionalists the process of socialisation is POSITIVE for all members of society. Functionalism is a CONSENSUS, MARCO APPROACH TO SOCIOLOGY. Functionalism & Socialisation : However, Marxist Gouldner (1970) what about the conflict within the socialisation process? : However, Interactionist Wrong (1961) individuals can rebel and reject social norms and values – an ‘oversocialised’ view of man is presented by Functionalists. Similarly, Parsons AGREES with Durkheim, arguing socialisation ensures a VALUE CONSENSUS. Members of society INTERALISE norms and values, making SOCIAL ORDER POSSIBLE. Durkheim argued socialisation ensures a ‘COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE’ within society - it helps bind everybody together.

6. For Marxists the process of socialisation is NEGATIVE, this is a contrasting approach to Functionalism Socialisation is the process whereby individuals learn the norms and values of the R/C (Bourgeoisie). Again, in contrast to Functionalism, not a set of agreed N&Vs. Marxism is a CONFLICT, MARCO APPROACH TO SOCIOLOGY. Marxism & Socialisation : However, Inkeles (1968): all societies have ‘societal demands’ common ideas of what their adults should be like, therefore there must be some degree of consensus within the socialisation process. For Marxists the aim of socialisation is SOCIAL CONTROL.

7. Like Marxism, Feminism is a CONFLICT, MARCO APPROACH TO SOCIOLOGY. For Feminists the process of socialisation is NEGATIVE. Socialisation is the process whereby individuals learn traditional gender roles. Feminism & Socialisation : However, Risman and Myers (1997): things are beginning to change,some households are now socializing children into a strong ‘FEMINIST IDEOLOGY’ children are being taught the importance of GENDER EQUALITY and to combat stereotypical gender roles. Oakley (1970) suggests there are differentiated gender roles for males and females which arise from culture not biology. Although these vary, she argues there is a clear pattern of male dominance. Males and females during in socialization are orientated towards different roles, activities and behaviours. Radical Feminists argues females are socialisation is influenced by PATRIARCHAL IDEOLOGY and females are socialised into a PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY.

8. Socialisation is the process whereby individuals create their own identities. Interactionism is an ACTION, MIRCO APPROACH TO SOCIOLOGY. Interactionism & Socialisation Handel (2006): individuals are active not passive in the process of socialisation, children do not blindly accept the norms/values they are socialised into, not everybody has the same experience of socialisation, everybody is different, e.g. class, gender, ethnicity, etc.

9. Giddens sees the importance of both social structures and an individual's free will(agency) during the socialisation process. Structuration Theory combines structure and action theory. Giddens attempts a ‘MIDDLE WAY’ between structure and action theory. Giddens & Socialisation Individual's use both social structures and interactions between individuals to form a sense of self/their culture, thus they are ‘INTERDEPENDENT’ of one another. Introduces the idea of the REFLEXIVE SELF – we are continually recreating ourselves, using social structures and interactions.

10. TASK: What are the agencies of socialization?

11. The Family • How does the Family socialize? • Agent of PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION • Despite increasing diversity, the family is still the main source of socialization within society. • The family acts as a ‘reference group’ and allows children to imitate social norms, children can discover acceptable and unacceptable behaviour • The family will use sanctions when children exhibit unacceptable behaviour. Functionalism: the Functionalist Parsons, views the family as a ‘personality factory’. It is the role of the parents, especially the mother, to mould the passive child into to image of society. The child is filled up with the shared cultural values and thus subscribes to the wider value consensus. Marxism: children are socialized into a set of R/C norms and values. Marxist Zaresky argues the family is used by the R/C to instil values that are useful to them e.g. obedience and respect for authority. This ensures exploitation in later life as the children have learnt that power, authority and inequality are inevitable. Feminism: Children are socialised into gendered identities and gender roles. Oakley (1981) is a feminist who argues that gender roles are socially constructed through socialisation. She explains how children are socialised into their gender roles by their families in four ways: manipulation, canalisation, verbal appellation & different activities.

12. Education • How does the Education socialize? • Agency of SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION. • It builds upon the socialization received in early years. • It provides children with academic knowledge to help them make sense of the world and social skills to benefit in the social world. Functionalism: the Functionalist Durkheim sees education as essential. Subjects within the curriculum allow children to link the past & present, encouraging pride and belonging (COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE) e.g. History and RE. The Functionalist Parsons suggests education acts as a bridge between the family and wider society. It equips children with the ‘universalistic values’ they will need for work e.g. achievement, competition and individualism (meritocracy). Marxism: the Neo-Marxist Althusser argues education primarily benefits the R/C as children not only learn academic knowledge but also character traits (hidden curriculum), these are essential for exploitation in later life. Subjects which promote a critical investigation of society are neglected and instead education makes children accept the hierarchy and see failure as their own fault. Failure will keep feeding the need for an uneducated manual labour force.

13. RELIGION • How does Religion socialize? • Agency of SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION. • Introduces children to the ‘spiritual world’ however, also impacts on moral values/behaviour and attitudes. • Overtime religious laws become intertwined with societal laws. • However, Gullup (2015) found that the UK is one of the world’s most least religious countries. Functionalism: the Functionalist Durkheim argues religion socializes individuals into a value consensus. These values become internalized and become wider moral codes. Religion also acts as a form of social solidarity for those who ‘belong’ it unites them to a community of believers and gives children further social influences(moral regulation). Marxism: Marx famously termed religion “the opium of the people.’ Religion suggest wealth is a reward from God, if you are rich it is a gift from God, if poor it is a punishment from God. Religion gives the W/C something other to focus upon rather than exploitation. Religion justifies exploitation. Because it promises a reward in the afterlife. Feminism: Religion acts as a source of oppression, socialising women into traditional gender roles. Feminists argue it does this in 4 ways: texts, places of worship, laws and customs and religious organisations/authority.

14. Mass Media • How does the MASS MEDIA socialize? • Agency of SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION. • Many argue this is the most significant agency today. • It has far more influence than any other on the individual (especially young people). • The mass media offers a number of functions: information, entertainment, communication and consumption. Marxism: the mass media is a form of ideological social control (I.S.A) . It is responsible for spreading ‘mass culture’ which encourages ‘false needs’ and ‘consumerism’ and provides a distraction and discourages any critical thought by the masses. It ensures the R/C can exploit and oppress its W/C workforce. Feminism: the mass media socialises males and females into traditional gender roles. Feminists argue the mass media’s representation of females is stereotypical and overwhelmingly negative. It encourages an idealized and unrealistic ideal about femininity (e.g. advertising and magazines) and contributes to the patriarchal control of females by representing females in subordinate roles or not representing them at all (symbolic annihilation) e.g. Disney films, advertisements, soaps.

15. Peer group People of a similar status who come into regular contact with one another such as groups of friends or work colleagues. • How does the PEER-GROUP socialize? • Agency of SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION. • Young children learn social norms through play e.g. negotiation. • It also allows children to undergo the process of anticipatory socializatione.g. playing doctors/teachers. Interactionism: Handel (2006) highlights the importance of the peer group for young people, especially teenagers. Peers act as a reference group, allowing them to acquire skills and knowledge that will allow them to successfully integrate/interact with people their own age – they gain a different perspective of society and sense of self with peers then with adults.

16. Places of work Anticipatory Socialisation: people may learn about/role play their position before entering the place of work e.g. children playing doctors and nurses or school teachers. Re-socialisation: When beginning at a new place of work, indivudal must relearn rules, regulations and norms. • How do the PLACES OF WORK socialize? • Agency of SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION. Part of the continuous socialisation process. • Involves the processes of resocialization and anticipatory socialization. • Furthermore, it offers both formal and informal socialization. Marxism: workers are socialised in a way which contributes to their continued exploitation e.g. Ritzer (2002) young people are often socialised into ‘McJobs’ – unskilled, low paid and part-time work in organisations where they perform predictable, precise and simple tasks repeatedly and every action/task they perform is controlled by management. They are rarely allowed to use imagination/own initiative and therefore unlikely to question their position. Places of work, both formally and informally socialise their employees. Formally through organisational structures and informally through a ‘canteen culture.’

17. Exam Question Practice Examine the ways in which sociologists have explained the process of socialisation. (24) Suggest two ways in which “X” acts as an agent of socialisation. (4) -Family -Education -Religion -Mass Media -Peer Groups -Places of Work Using material from Item 1B and elsewhere, assess the role of different agencies of socialisation. (24) Using material from Item 1B and elsewhere, assess the Marxist view of the role of the socialisation process. (24)

18. Education By displaying certain behaviour children will learn the idea of sanctions e.g. being rewarded for good behaviour and punished for negative behaviour. Feminists e.g. Oakley, would argue education encourages stereotypical gender roles, by directing girls and boys towards different activities e.g. girls playing house and boys play football. Family Through imitating their parents, children will learn the basic norms and values of society e.g. how to eat, use the toilet, appropriate dress and manners. Feminists e.g. Oakley, would argue the family encourage stereotypical gender roles, by directing girls and boys towards different activities e.g. girls baking and boys playing sport. Religion Through religion children are taught about morality, religion will give them a set of guidelines to live their life by e.g. Christianity’s 10 Commandments/ Buddhism’s 5 precepts. Feminists would argue religion encourages women to be subordinate to men e.g. by learning religious stories or taking part in worship at a place of worship.

19. Mass Media The mass media provides children with role models, through imitation they may copy their role models behaviour, this could have a positive or negative effect on the child, e.g. Peppa Pig vs Miley Cyrus. The mass media will teach children basic norms and values and academic knowledge e.g. playing fairly, alphabet and numbers. Peer Group The peer group provide children with role models, through imitation they may copy their behaviour, this could have a positive or negative effect on the child, e.g. partaking is risky behaviour through peer pressure e.g. smoking or by partaking in similar interests and learning new skills e.g. Guides/Scouts. The peer group may helps with anticipatory socialization by allowing children to role play future careers/roles. Work Places The work place will teach children/adults new skills and knowledge. The work place will conduct resocialization to help indivudal become accustomed with their new environment/ role.

20. Topic 2: Sources & Different Concepts of Self, Identity and Difference

23. An overview Action Theory Identity is created by the individual. Individuals take meanings from their interactions. Individuals are creators of meanings, they can reject social influences. Structural Theory Identity is imposed on the individual through the socialization process. Individuals are passive and influenced by social institutions.

24. Mead argues: the self is not there from birth, but develops over time from social experiences and activities. Belongs to SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. AN ACTION/MIRCO THEORY. Argues 3 things are essential for the development of the self: language, play and games. Mead & Identity (Social Self) The ‘ME' is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. This is shaped by the ‘I’ For Mead an individual's identity/sense of self is created by imagining an individual having two sides: “I” and “ME.” The ‘I’ and ‘ME’ work together (fusion) to enable the individual to function in society. The ‘I’ represents the individual's private inner self. This is controlled by the ‘ME’

25. Our ID is constantly changing and developing through our daily life. Belongs to SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. AN ACTION/MIRCO THEORY. For Cooley an individual's identity/sense of self is created by something called the ‘looking glass self.’ Cooley & Identity The L.G.S is the idea that an image of ourselves is reflected in the reactions of other people to us. As individual considers this image, and modifies /changes our behaviour/ID. Thus our ID is socially constructed.

27. Our ID is developed through the way we ‘act’ in society. Goffman’s theory is dramaturgical – ‘the whole world is a stage’. Belongs to SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. AN CTION/MIRCO THEORY. Goffman argues we use IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT to create ID/sense of self. Goffman & Identity Like actors we present images – ‘the presentation of self’ to others and act like we wish to be seen. We use props or symbols to present these images. If we act a certain way on the ‘front stage’ our ID may become ‘spoiled’ through ‘stigmatization’. Society is divided into the ‘front stage’ and the ‘back stage.’ On each ‘stage’ we act differently.

28. Our ID is split into three parts: ID, Ego and Superego. Freud is a Psychologist and the founder of the the Psychodynamic School of Psychology. Freud & Identity ID: this is something we are born with, it isthe most basic part of our ID, and is concerned with instant gratification. Ego: deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the ID in a way that is socially acceptable in the world. Superego: the superego develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong.

29. In today’s society there are so many choices available to us in relation to how we should live our lives. Postmodernism rejects ‘modernist’ theories and argues today’s society is too complex to be understood and theorised. Our identity is continually created and re-created through our consumption of cultural products and symbols. Postmodernism and Identity Pick ‘n’ mix society. Media- saturated society . Instead of one mainstream culture we now have a variety of cultures to choose from. The dominant mainstream culture is being replaced by a wide variety of ‘taste groups’ and an increasing diversity of lifestyles. Bauman (1996) argues identity no longer has a stable basis, identity has now become a matter of choice – individuals can change their identity as and when they want. Postmodernist Hobswarn notes that most identities are like ‘shirts’ that we choose to wear, rather than the skin we are born with.

30. Structural theories e.g. Functionalism and Marxism reject Interactionist ideas on the formation of ID. Structural Theory & Identity Functionalists argue that our ID is controlled by the value consensus within society – this defines and determines different roles, for different people within society e.g. mothers, employees, school children. Unlike Action theories, Structural theories argue we are passively socialised into our IDS and have very little choice over the process.

31. Exam Question Practice Examine the contribution of interactionist views to our understanding of identity. (24) Identify two characteristics of the postmodernist view of culture and/or identity (4). Using material from Item 1B and elsewhere, assess the extent to which social identity is shaped by interactions with others. (24) Identify three characteristics and/or concepts associated with interactionist views of culture and identity. (6)

33. Topic 3: Differing Conceptions of Culture

36. Folk Culture: the habits/customs of traditional rural communities emerging directly from their lived experience. • Characteristics of Folk Culture: • authenticand actively created. • created by local communities. • rooted in the experience, customs and beliefs of everyday ordinary people. • associated with pre/early industrial society. Use examples to expand your point.

37. High Culture: culture that is seen to have an artistic and/or intellectual merit which is highly valued in society e.g. classical music, fine art. • Characteristics of High Culture: • separate/set apart. • found in special places. • superior. • associated with the elites of society. Use examples to expand your point.

38. Mass/Low Culture: an inferior quality culture. Often it is in contrast to high culture and is associated with those from a lower socio-economic group. • Characteristics of Mass/Low Culture: • created by commercial organisations. • passive. • associated with industrial societies. • is produced for profit. • inauthenticity. Use examples to expand your point. How is mass culture explained? What do the Frankfurt School say?

39. There has been a technological advancement in industrial societies which makes all cultural products reproducible e.g. the internet, digital TV and mass printing. This now allows everybody access to cultural products There has been a huge expansion in creative and cultural industries e.g. advertising, films, music, TV, publishing. This has resulted in a greater availability cultural products. The Changing Distinction between ‘High’ and ‘Mass Culture’ There is now a greater range of cultural products available, individuals can ‘pick ‘n’ mix’ their cultural pursuits e.g. fine art is accessible through accessible the art galleries, opera through access to ‘concerts in the park.’

40. Sociologists & the Changing Distinction Between High and Mass Culture Giddings (2010) forms of high culture are now being used to produce mass culture e.g. video games combine – art, architecture, classical music and writers. Strinati (1995) argues elements of high culture have now become mass culture and elements of mass culture have been incorporated into high culture. There is no longer any real distinction. Storey (2003) suggests both the middle and working classes are consuming ‘high’ and ‘mass’ culture e.g. Andy Warhol’s art work. Giddings (2010) the distinctions between ‘high’ and ‘mass’ culture ‘are only there because we are told they are there’ it is now impossible to draw this distinction.

41. Popular Culture: culture that is commercially produced and includes objects, images, artefacts, literature and music of ordinary people e.g. films, TV, magazines. • Characteristics of Popular Culture: • reflects the norms, values, institutions and activities of the majority. • culture of the working class rather than the ruling class. • it assumes its consumers are active not passive . • challenge mainstream ideas. Use examples to expand your point.

42. Theorising Youth Subcultures Functionalism: Functionalists e.g. Eisenstadt (1956) & Parsons (1956) suggest youth subcultures emerge as a way of dealing with status frustration. They suggest they are a fairly normal and transitional stage from childhood to adulthood. They are often short-lived & expressed through pleasure seeking activity often in the company of the peer group. Subculture: a group that develop their own norms and values that are different to mainstream society e.g. ethnic groups, working/upper class, youth, sexuality. Theorising Subcultures: Functionalism Evaluating Youth Subcultures Functionalism: : Functionalism doesn’t explain the wide variety of subcultures. It doesn’t account for the differences between them because of class, age, gender etc. : What about the negative aspects of youth subcultures? What about their dysfunctions e.g. links to racism and anti-social behaviour?

43. Hall and Jefferson (1976): examined the youth styles of Skinheads, Punks, Teddy Boys and Mods as subcultures of resistance to the dominant class and culture of society. • Hebdige (1976): examined the Mods and found their style was used as a reaction to the tedium of their life and work. Theorising Youth Subcultures Marxism: Marxism looks at the diversity of subcultures. It focuses on the differences between subcultures because of social class. Theorising Subcultures: Marxism • Furthermore, Hebdige (1979) saw the bricolage of punk subcultures as a form of resistance to dominant cultural norms and values. They deliberately sought to be offensive, shocking and ugly e.g. spitting and swearing to express their view that society is also ugly and offensive. • Brake (1985) also saw W/C youth subcultures as expressions of hostility and resistance to the dominant class. Cohen (1972) saw W/C subcultures as a means of re-establishing a sense of community and social cohesion lost due to the break-up of traditional W/C communities because of unemployment and rehousing. This is supported through the work of Clarke et al (1976) and Hebdige (1979) who examined ‘Skinhead Style’ and found items of clothing e.g. Dr Martens, braces and skinheads were used as an attempt to recreate the traditional working class community.

44. Hall and Jefferson (1976): examined the youth styles of Skinheads, Punks, Teddy Boys and Mods as subcultures of resistance to the dominant class and culture of society. • Hebdige (1976): examined the Mods and found their style was used as a reaction to the tedium of their life and work. Theorising Youth Subcultures Marxism: Marxism looks at the diversity of subcultures. It focuses on the differences between subcultures because of social class. Theorising Subcultures: Marxism • Furthermore, Hebdige (1979) saw the bricolage of punk subcultures as a form of resistance to dominant cultural norms and values. They deliberately sought to be offensive, shocking and ugly e.g. spitting and swearing to express their view that society is also ugly and offensive. • Brake (1985) also saw W/C youth subcultures as expressions of hostility and resistance to the dominant class. Cohen (1972) saw W/C subcultures as a means of re-establishing a sense of community and social cohesion lost due to the break-up of traditional W/C communities because of unemployment and rehousing. This is supported through the work of Clarke et al (1976) and Hebdige (1979) who examined ‘Skinhead Style’ and found items of clothing e.g. Dr Martens, braces and skinheads were used as an attempt to recreate the traditional working class community.

45. : The Interactionist Cohen (1972) rejects the idea subcultures are created by factors such as class, gender, ethnicity and location they are manufactured by the mass media. : Marxists focus their attention on high-profile, white, male, W/C, youth subcultures. They ignore MC, ethnic minority and female subcultures. Theorising Subcultures: Evaluating Marxism : Postmodernists e.g. Bennett (2001) suggest that subcultures may not be formed out of resistance, but instead just for fun. In Postmodern, media-saturated society, Postmodernist Thornton (1995), argues young people develop their identity and position in society through what they see and hear in the media.

46. Feminists suggest females are less involved in male-dominated subcultures for three main reasons: • gender role socialisation. • strict control of leisure time by parents. • concerns about personal safety. Feminism suggests female participation in subcultures is ignored. Theorising Subcultures: Feminism Traditionally, girls have been confined to the private sphere of their home. McRobbie & Garber (1976) found that female subcultures took the form of what they called ‘bedroom culture’ – these focused on activities such as: listening and discussing music, make-up, beauty, talking about boys & dance routines. Today, however, Lincoln (2004) suggests also this ‘bedroom culture still exists, the internet and sites like Facebook make these activities difficult to study. Hollands (1995) found that girls today are much more involved in youth subcultures outside of the home and is becoming similar to men, females are now going out more and becoming more involved in dance and drug subcultures.

47. Feminists suggest females are less involved in male-dominated subcultures for three main reasons: • gender role socialisation. • strict control of leisure time by parents. • concerns about personal safety. Feminism suggests female participation in subcultures is ignored. Theorising Subcultures: Feminism Traditionally, girls have been confined to the private sphere of their home. McRobbie & Garber (1976) found that female subcultures took the form of what they called ‘bedroom culture’ – these focused on activities such as: listening and discussing music, make-up, beauty, talking about boys & dance routines. Today, however, Lincoln (2004) suggests also this ‘bedroom culture still exists, the internet and sites like Facebook make these activities difficult to study. Hollands (1995) found that girls today are much more involved in youth subcultures outside of the home and is becoming similar to men, females are now going out more and becoming more involved in dance and drug subcultures.

48. Postmodernism rejects the concept of subculture, as they regard them as metanarratives trying to fit people into social structures. Postmodernists reject structural factors e.g. class, gender, age and ethnicity have become less significant as sources of identity and the formation of groups. Culture is so fragmented it is no longer possible to talk about things such as dominant, mainstream or subcultures because all culture is now just so many different tastes chosen through consumerism. Theorising Subcultures: Postmodernism Postmodernist Bennett (1999) suggests the cultural activities of today’s youth no long revolves around the formation of youth subcultures but neo-tribalism – the young are no longer interested in forming fixed subcultures around their social status instead they use consumer choice to identify themselves with a range or groups (tribes). Life in the postmodern, individualised, media-saturated, consumer-driven world is so fluid, nobody knows that will happen next.

49. Global Culture: people in different countries sharing the same norms/values/ attitudes/ products e.g. world music. • Characteristics of Global Culture: • global products. • global media corporations. • the internet. • international tourism. Globalisation: the growing interdependence and interconnectedness of societies across the world and events which happen in one part of the world are influencing what happens in another; socially, politically and economically. Use examples to expand your points.