Between Two Fires

1. Between Two Fires The Inter-War Period

2. Russia - National Collapse • World War I was devastating for Russia • Russia’s lack of industrial development made it incapable of sustaining a modern war effort. • With Tsar Nicholas’ failure as a war leader and Tsarina Alexandra ineptitude leading the country at home (coming under the influence of holy man Rasputin) he prestige of the regime was in question. Gregori Rasputin

3. End of the Tsarist Regime • In early 1917, strikes sweep Petrograd (St. Petersburg) • Unrest results from war-weariness, famines, and runaway inflation. • The tsar dissolved the Duma in March. • Nicholas sent troops against the demonstrators, but they joined them. • The Tsar abdicated on March 15 (February Revolution)

4. The Provisional Government • The Duma now became the government, under the leadership of Prince Lvov. • The liberal dominated Provisional Government promised reforms, elections, and a constitution to create a republic. • The government continued the war against the Central Powers. • Meanwhile, socialists creates soviets (councils of workers and soldiers) in Petrograd and other cities; they gave tacit support to the Provisional Government.

5. The Bolsheviks • In April, 1917, Vladimir I. Lenin, leader of the Marxist Bolsheviks, returned for exile in Switzerland. • He presented his program for workers revolution, the April Theses, to his followers. • The Bolsheviks called for “Peace, Land, and Bread” as their slogan for revolution.

6. The July Days • The continued military failures resulted in revolt against the Provisional Government. • The Petrograd Soviet opposed the revolt, the Bolsheviks supported it. • With the revolt suppressed, Lenin was forced to flee to Finland, but his support gained him followers. • In late July, socialist Alexander Kerensky became leader of the Provisional Government. Alexander Kerensky

7. The October Revolution • Lenin returned and began plans to overthrow the provisional government. • On Oct. 24 (Nov. 6) the Red Guards of the Petrograd Soviet seized power from the Provisional Government. • The next day, Lenin announced the creation of the new regime after a takeover with little violence.

8. V.I. Lenin • Born Vladimir Ilyich Ulianov in 1870. • Studied law, but became involved in radical activities which got him exiled in 1900. • In 1898, Russian Marxists founded the Social Democratic Party, they split in two – Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

9. The Bolshevik Regime • The Bolsheviks urged on socialist reforms after the October Revolution. • They called workers seizure of land and factories. • Titles of nobility were abolished • The Russian Orthodox Church was supressed.

10. The Constituent Assembly • The Provisional Government had scheduled an election for November which Lenin allowed to go forward. • The Bolsheviks won only 225 seats, while the rural back Socialist Revolutionary Party won 420 seats. • After meeting once in Jan. 1918, Lenin dissolved the assembly. • He also formed he Cheka (secret police) to combat counter-revolutionary activity,

11. Ending the War • Negotiations between Russia and Germany led to the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. • Lenin accepted its harsh terms because he knew Russia could not fight on and he believed revolution would soon come to Germany. • The treaty was nullified by Germany’s surrender in November 1918.

12. Civil War • The October Revolution had caught their opponents off guard, by spring 1918 they had regrouped. • The Bolsheviks (who now called themselves Communists) controlled the industrial centers and organized the Red Army under Leon Trotsky to gain control of the rest of the country Leon Trotsky

13. Civil War • The anti-communist forces became known as the Whites. • They were poorly organized. • When they threatened to rescue the royal family, the family was killed in July 1918. • The Allies provided limited support to the Whites and they were eventually defeated in 1920.

14. War Communism • During the Civil War, the regime nationalized all major industries and financial institutions. • Private trade and commerce was prohibited. • This radical change caused the economy to spiral into chaos, causing food and fuel shortages.

15. The New Economic Policy • Discontent mounted with the worsening economic situation. • Recognizing the need for change, Lenin introduced the NEP in March 1921. • While major industries remained nationalized, small industries (particularly in agriculture) were allowed to trade privately. • Lenin justified this as one step backward to take two steps forward.

16. The Soviet Union • Russia renamed to Soviet Union in 1924 (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics -- USSR) • It contained 11 semi-autonomous republics. • The 1936 Stalin Constitution created the Supreme Soviet (parliament) directly elected by all citizens 18 and over.

17. The Soviet Government • In reality, state control was exercised by the Communist Party. • Central Committee was the apex of Soviet power (about 70 people in 1930s) • Politburo: About a dozen members; dominated discussions of policy and personnel • General Secretary: highest position of power; created by Stalin

18. Power Struggle • Power struggle ensued after Lenin’s death in 1924: he left no chosen successor • Joseph Stalin believed in "Socialism in one Country": first, Russia had to be strong • Establishment of a Socialist economy without the aid of the West

19. Power Struggle • Leon Trotsky believed in "permanent revolution": continuing a world revolution • Party leaders believed Trotsky was too idealistic; Russia first had to survive • Stalin gained control in 1927 and had total control by 1929; Trotsky exiled soon after.

20. Stalin’s Victory • Stalin maneuvered to gain support in the Communist Party. • He allied himself with various members of the party. • He had Trotsky expelled then exiled to Mexico, where he was murdered by a Stalinist agent in 1940.

21. The Five Year Plans • "Revolution from above" (1st Five Year Plan), 1928; marked end of NEP • Objectives: • Total industrial output to increase by 250%; steel by 300%; agriculture by 150% • 1/5 of peasants were scheduled to give up their private plots and join collective farms • “We are 50 or 100 years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in 10 years. Either we do it or we shall go under.”

22. The Five Year Plans • Results: steel up 400% (now 2nd largest steel producer in Europe); oil up 300%; massive urbanization (25 million people moved to cities) • Costs: quality of goods suspect; standard of living did not rise

23. Collectivization • Collectivization was the greatest of all costs • Purpose: bring peasantry under absolute control of the communist state • Consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled enterprises. • Farmers paid according to amount of work; portion of harvest paid to gov't

24. Collectivization • Goals: • Use of machines in farm production, to free more people to work in industry • Gov't control over production • Extend socialism to countryside

25. Collectivization • Results: • Opposed by farmers as it placed them in a bound situation like the mirs. • Kulaks, wealthiest peasants, offered greatest resistance to collectivization • Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class." • 10 million dead due to collectivization (7 million in forced starvation in Ukraine)

26. Collectivization • Results: • Agricultural output no greater than in 1913 • By 1933, 60% of peasant families were on collective farms; 93% by 1938. • Eventually, the state was assured of grain for bread for urban workers who were more important politically than the peasants. • Collective farmers first had to meet grain quotas before feeding themselves.

27. Soviet Reforms • Benefits for workers: • Old-age pensions, free medical services, free education, and day-care centers for children • Education was key to improving one’s position: specialized skills and technical education. • Many Russians saw themselves building world’s first socialist society while capitalism crumbled during the Great Depression • USSR attracted many disillusioned Westerners to communism in the 1930s.

28. Stalin's propaganda campaign • Purpose: To glorify work to soviet people--an at­tempt to encourage worker productivity • Used technology for propaganda • Newspapers(esp. Pravda), films, and radio broadcasts emphasized socialist achievements and capitalist plots. • Sergei Eisenstein: patriotic Russian filmmaker (socialist realism) • Writers & artists expected to glorify Stalin and the state; work was closely monitored • Religion was persecuted: Stalin hoped to turn churches into "museums of atheism"

29. Women • Russian Revolution immediately proclaimed complete equality of rights for women. • In 1920s divorce and abortion made easily available. • Women urged to work outside the home and many women worked as professionals and in universities. • Women still expected to do household chores in off hours as Soviet men considered home and children women’s responsibility. • Men continued to monopolize the best jobs. • Rapid change and economic hardship led to many broken families.

30. The Great Purge • First directed against peasants after 1929, terror used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. • The "Great Purge" resulted in 8 million arrests • Show trials used eradicate "enemies of the people" (usually ex-party members)

31. The Great Purge • Late 1930s, dozens of Old Bolsheviks tried and executed (Lenin's closest followers) • Purges: 40,000 army officers were expelled or liquidated (weakened USSR in WWII) • Millions of citizens were killed, died in labor camps, or simply disappeared.

32. Postwar Italy • World War I left Italy with little national glory. • Economic problems plagued the country. • Huge national debt • Runaway inflation • Massive unemployment • The Socialist Party appeared ready to fill the political vacuum, but they remained split.

33. Causes for Rise of Fascism • In early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state with civil rights and constitutional monarchy. • Versailles Treaty: Italian nationalists angry that Italy did not receive any Austrian or Ottoman territory, (Italia Irredenta) or Germany’s African colonies as promised. • Depression in 1919 caused nationwide strikes and class tension. • Failure of strong leadership opened opportunities.

34. Fascism • Wealthy classes fearful of communist revolution looked to strong anti-communist leader • By 1921 revolutionary socialists, conservatives and property owners were all opposed to liberal parliamentary government. • Fascism in Italy eventually a combination of conservative authoritarianism and modern totalitarianism (although not as extreme as Russia or Germany)

35. Benito Mussolini • Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) rises to power ("Il Duce") • Editor of a socialist newspaper yet was a nationalist. • Organized the Fascist party • Initially, failed to succeed because of competition from well-organized Socialists.

36. Fascist Movement • Combination of socialism and nationalism: territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants. • Named after fasces: the rods carried by Imperial Roman officials as symbols of power. • 1920, Mussolini gained support of conservative classes and frightened middle class for anti-Socialist rhetoric; abandoned his socialist programs. • Blackshirts (squadristi): Paramilitary forces attacked Communists, socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts" followed this example)

37. Fascist Movement • March on Rome, October 1922: led to Mussolini taking power • Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov’t and his own appointment by the king. • Large group of Fascists marched on Rome to threaten king to accept Mussolini's demands. • Government collapsed; Mussolini received right to organize a new cabinet (government). • Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorial powers for 1 year to end nation’s social unrest.

38. The Corporate State • Corporate State (syndicalist-corporate system) was the economic basis for Italian fascism. • “Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state.” • By 1928, all independent labor unions organized into government-controlled syndicates • Established organizations of workers and employers and outlawed strikes and walkouts. • Created corporations which coordinated activities between worker-employer syndicates. • Authority from the top, unlike socialist corporate states where workers made decisions.

39. Fascist Rule • Right to vote severely limited. • All candidates for Italian parliament selected by Fascist party. • Government ruled by decree. • Dedicated fascists put in control of schools. • Created fascist youth movement, labor unions, and other fascist organizations: Dopolavoro (After Work) and Balilla (Fascist Youth Organization) failed to regulate leisure time.

40. Fascist Rule • Mussolini never became all-powerful • Failed in attempt to “Fascistize” Italian society by controlling leisure time • Old power structure of conservatives, military, and church remained intact. • Mussolini never attempted to purge conservative classes. • He propagandized and controlled labor but left big business to regulate itself.

41. Fascist Rule • Did not establish ruthless police state (only 23 political prisoners executed bet. 1926-1944) • Racial laws not passed until 1938 and savage persecution of Jews not until late in WWII when Italy was under Nazi control.

42. Women Under Fascism • Divorce abolished and women told to stay home and procreate. • Decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934. • 1938, women limited by law to a maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in industry & gov't

43. Fascist Accomplishments • Internal improvements made such as electrification and road building. • More efficient municipal governing. • Suppression of the Mafia • Improvement of the justice system (except for “enemies of the state”) • Lateran Pact, 1929, resulted in reconciliation with the papacy

44. Postwar Germany • With the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II on Nov. 9th, 1918, Germany became a republic under the leadership of the Social Democrats. • This came as a shock to most, since they believed Germany was winning the war. • The republic faced its first challenge with the Spartacist Revolt in Jan. 1919.

45. Weimar Republic • German voters chose democracy as the National Assembly met in Weimar to draft a constitution. • It created a two house parliament (elected by proportional representation) and a president. • Despite this, many conservative nationalists remained in positions of power and resented the republic.

46. Economic Problems • The reparations debt of 132 billion marks ($33 billion) crippled Germany. • Default allowed the French to occupy the industrial Ruhr Valley in 1923. • The industrial workers there refused to work for the French. • To support them, Germany printed money, causing rapid inflation.

47. Economic Recovery • Gustav Stresemann, replaced the old mark with a new one, stabilizing the currency. • Passive resistance was ended in the Ruhr and the reparations issue was addressed. • The Dawes Plan had Germany pay variably depending on economic strength • In 1925, the Ruhr occupation ended. • The infusion of foreign loans and investment led to recovery in the late 1920s.

48. The Depression and 1930 Elections • President Hindenburg faced economic crisis with the depression in 1930. • In the 1930 election, the Nazis increased their seats to 107 with the support of the lower middle class and peasants. • The Social Democrats continued to be the largest party with 143 seats and the communists held 77. Hindenburg

49. Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) • Born in Austria, he was a poor student who unsuccessfully attempted to become an artist in Vienna. • Moving to Munich, he began to absorb right-wing ideas. • He enlisted in the German army and won the Iron Cross.

50. The Nazi Party • In Munich after the war, Hitler joined then reorganized a small nationalist group soon to be called the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) or Nazis. • He gained followers by speaking of Germany’s ills and the disgrace of the Versailles Treaty. • He formed a paramilitary wing, the SA, or Brown Shirts.