Theories of Practice: The Political Frame

1. Theories of Practice:The Political Frame MPA 8002 Organization Theory Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. A POLITICAL SCENARIO Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.

3. MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A POLITICAL SCENARIO The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)

4. the political frame

5. The snakepit of workplace politics... Organizations are comprised of human beings... …who come to organizations possessing diverse beliefs, values, and interests.

6. Interdependence, power relations, and the scarcity of necessary resources... … impinge upon people and influence their decision-making processes.

7. For managers and leaders, the question is not whether organizations will have politics... ...but the kind of politics they will have.

8. Not about how managers and leaders avoid politics... …but about how they deal with politics.

9. Not whether managers and leaders will use their current position as a steppingstone towards “greener pastures”… …but how they will manage and lead workplace politics towards positive and productive ends.

10. Politics... • the matters of the people (in Greek, polis) • each of whom possesses: cultural milieu theoretical knowledge craft knowledge antecedents self knowledge critical knowledge

11. these antecedents influence and shape each individual’s fundamental... ...beliefs ...assumptions ...values All of these matters are antecedent to an individual’s theories of practice.

12. …and in organizations... • many people bring... CON F L I C T diverse beliefs diverse values resulting in diverse interests

13. Managing and leading organizations involves dealing with conflict... • that is… …how to engage in battle... …without becoming embattled

14. Requires leaders and managers who... 1. understand the nature of conflict in the organization

15. Conflict... • permeates organizations vertical types of organizational conflict horizontal cultural

16. since conflict is natural and inevitable in organizations... …conflict is not a problem or an issue per se... …but requires managers and leaders who understand and are capable of dealing directly and effectively with conflict

17. Understanding conflict... • conflict challenges the status quo • conflict can stimulate personal and social change, interest, creativity, and innovation Effective managers and leaders focus not on eliminating conflict but on strategies and tactics that channel conflict toward positive and productive ends.

18. Requires leaders and managers who... 2. deal with conflict

19. Managing and leading conflict... • the goal is to mobilize people to achieve shared goals and to overcome obstacles by relating with allies and opponents alike... Effective managers and leaders view adversaries not as difficult people to deal with but as interesting people they compete with.

20. Tactics for dealing with conflict... 1) to establish boundaries in conflict situations arenas characterized by fair competition bounded conflicts vs. streetfights ending in obliteration of the opponent unbounded conflicts

21. vs. arenas streetfights conflict is an ongoing interplay of competing interests and agendas among different individuals and groups people are independent agents who possess and will use whatever tools necessary to achieve their self-interest, irrespective of others

22. vs. arenas streetfights everything is defined: the game, field, rules, interests, and preferences to be pursued nothing is defined: individuals and groups legislate their own rules and behavior ad hoc

23. vs. arenas streetfights multiple opportunities for formal and informal communication, including meetings, committees, and task forces communication transpires somewhere “beneath the surface””

24. vs. arenas streetfights the objective is to avoid mutually assured destruction the objective is to “take no prisoners”

25. Tactics... 2) to define the agenda purpose strategy vs. self-interest conflict

26. agenda setting requires… • interpersonal sensitivity • discrete arm twisting • planting seeds • moving elephants

27. Tactics... 3) to map the political terrain to identify where the players’ self-interests collide and how the players view one another (Pichault, 1993) • determine the channels of informal communication • identify the principal agents wielding political influence • analyze the possibilities for both internal and external mobilization • anticipate the strategies that other individuals and groups are likely to employ

28. Mapping the political terrain. A scenario…but, who’s view? p o w e r high top management middle management support staff low pro-change anti-change interests

29. Who’s view? p o w e r high top management middle management support staff low pro-change anti-change interests

30. Tactics... 4) to build coalitions among and network players through influence building a coalition is: • a group of individuals possessing diverse objectives and resources • attempting to negotiate and bargain with other players both overtly and covertly • to influence goals, tactics, and projects

31. the collision of self-interests (what people want) and the scarcity of resources (what people need) requires intense bargaining and negotiating... …thus, the critical question for managers and leaders is: How do the groups articulate their preferences and mobilize power to get both what they want and need?

32. ...a four-step process of mapping political influence (Kotter, 1985) • identify relevant relationships, that is, who needs to be managed or led • assess who is likely to resist, why, and how strongly, that is, figure out ahead of time where the likely challenges are • develop, wherever possible, relationships with potential opponents to facilitate communication, education, and negotiation

33. ...in the event these steps fail, then carefully select and implement more subtle or more forceful methods... • identify whose help you need • develop relations with them through “pre-selling” and “cheerleading” • engage in “horse-trading,” that is, promise rewards in exchange for resources and support which will secure the blessing of scarce resources

34. Tactics... 5) to engage the players in bargaining and negotiating creating value claiming value finding better solutions (vs. the best solution) for contending players players endeavor to maximize their individual gain at minimal cost win-win win-lose

35. Change generates conflict and creates winners and losers. Effective managers and leaders avoid smoothing over those issues which drive conflict underground. • Managing and leading change effectively requires creating arenas where organizational problems issues can be bargained and negotiated.

36. Requires leaders and managers who... 3. create and claim value

37. creating value... • the conscious insertion of principles into the decision-making process • the art of using bargaining and negotiating as a forum for building consensus about shared values • the “moral” aspect of management/leadership (Barnard, 1938/1968)

38. Tactics... 1. separate the players from the problem by focusing on the merits of the argument 2. insist on objective criteria in substance and procedures by avoiding anecdotal data and feelings 3. focus on interests not positions 4. invent options for mutual gain

39. claiming value... • acting upon the pragmatic recognition that bargaining and negotiating is a mixed-motive game... …wherein both players want an agreement but have different interests and preferences which influence the process

40. Tactics... 1. focus players on the interdependence of decisions as well as the series of decisions to be made …what each player does affects the other …each player wants, as much as possible, to be able to predict what the other will do while limiting the other’s ability to do likewise …the implicit goal is for player A to control player B’s level of uncertainty so as to exercise greater power in bargaining and negotiating

41. 2. use judicious threats rather than sanctions …threats are potent only to the degree that the opponent believes the threat will be carried out … noncredible threats weaken one’s position and confuses the process … the players may then threaten to use force, go on strike, or break off negotiations …but, in most cases, they cannot bear the costs of carrying out the threat

42. 3. calculate the appropriate level of threat …“underthreatening” only weakens one’s position …“overthreatening” is perceived as bluffing and may lead another party to disbelieve, to break off bargaining and negotiating, or to force an escalation in threats

43. all of this claiming value increases the probability that managers and leaders will be perceived as functioning as manipulators... …who breed self-interest, mistrust, and hostility in their followers

44. effective managers and leaders... …create value and claim value …as they engage in conditional openness …and follow the “Golden Rule”

45. Requires leaders and managers who... 4. deal with and use power effectively

46. ...in Greek, atia, “to rule” POWER …not, in and of itself, a negative concept

47. to rule... …to make a judgment …in Greek, krisis, that is, “crisis” To “rule” means to render a judgment in a crisis, a judgment evidencing the virtuous character (or lack of virtue) of the individual making the judgment.

48. Examples of power... • influencing behavior • changing the course of events • overcoming resistance • getting people to do the things they would not otherwise do • making one’s will prevail and attaining one’s goal

49. …unfortunately, negative Machiavellian connotations distort thoughtful discourse about power and its exercise...

50. the difference between the positive use of power and the negative use of power... …is found in the person using power... …and the principles upon which that individual justifies the use of power