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Chapter 2. Paradigms, Theory, And Research. Traditional Model of Science. Three main elements in the traditional model of science: Theory Operationalization Observation. Hypothesis. A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition.
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Chapter 2 Paradigms, Theory, And Research
Traditional Model of Science Three main elements in the traditional model of science: • Theory • Operationalization • Observation
Hypothesis • A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition. • An expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory. • A statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct.
Operationalization • Developing operational definitions or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable. • Quantitative: How to agree upon measuring income in a survey • Qualitative: How to agree upon the proper countries to compare
Operational Definition • The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized. • Quantitative: Party Identification will be measured on a seven-point scale • Qualitative: Only comparing other countries in Africa will be necessary
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning • Induction starts from observed data and develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed. • In deductive reasoning one starts from a general law and applies it to a particular instance.
Null Hypothesis • In connection with hypothesis testing and tests of statistical significance, that hypothesis that suggests there is no relationship among the variables under study. • You may conclude that the variables are related after having statistically rejected the null hypothesis.
Research Ethics and Theory • Researchers must guard against letting their choice of theory or paradigms bias their research results. • The collective nature of social research offers protection against biased research findings.
Paradigms • A model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes what we see and how we understand it. • The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the interactionist paradigm causes us to see it differently. • We can see new ways of seeing and explaining things when we step outside our paradigm.
Macrotheory • A theory aimed at understanding the “big picture” of institutions, whole societies and the interactions among societies. • Karl Marx’s examination of the class struggle is an example of macrotheory.
Microtheory • A theory aimed at understanding social life at the level of individuals and their interactions. • Explaining how the play behavior of girls differs from that of boys is an example of microtheory.
Positvism • Comte’s view that science would replace religion and metaphysics by basing knowledge on observations. • Comte coined positivism, in contrast to what he regarded as negative elements in the Enlightenment.
Conflict • Marx suggested social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict: • Attempt to dominate others. • Attempt to avoid domination.
Symbolic Interactionism • Interactions revolve around individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems. • Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life.
Ethnomethodology • People are continuously trying to make sense of the life they experience. • One technique is to break the rules and violate people’s expectations.
Structural Functionalism • A social entity, such as an organization, can be viewed as an organism. • A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole. • This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of society.
Feminism • Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to the rest of social organization. • Draws attention to the oppression of women in many societies, and sheds light on all kinds of oppression.
Interest Convergence • The thesis that majority group members will only support the interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.
Asch Experiment • Goal was to determine whether subjects would be swayed by the pressure to go along with an incorrect answer. • Initial experiments found that a little over 1/3 of subjects were.
