New Ideas in Science

1. Charles Darwin studied variations in plants, animals in 1800s Published theories in On the Origin of Species Developed concept of natural selection Creatures well adapted to environment have better chance of surviving, producing offspring Offspring will inherit features that help them survive New Ideas in Science

2. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Over time the species will evolve to improve survival chances Controversial theory Indicated humans were descended from other animals Many opposed Darwin because theory differed from Biblical story of creation Darwin Video New Ideas in Science

3. New Ideas in Science • Advances in Chemistry and Physics, early 1800s • Scientists believed atoms made up chemical elements • Also thought all elements made of same kinds of atoms • Modern Atomic Theory • John Dalton, 1803 • Atoms of different elements are themselves of difference size and mass • Periodic Table • Dimitri Mendeleyev, 1871 • Arranged known chemical elements into Periodic Table • Revealed previously unknown patterns • More Elements Discovered • Marie and Pierre Curie, 1898 • Discovered polonium, radium • Concluded certain elements release energy when break down, called radioactivity

4. Others developed theories based on Curies’ work Ernest Rutherford, 1911 In center of atom lay a core called a nucleus Nucleus made up of positively charged particles, protons Disproved long-held belief that atom was solid piece of matter New Ideas in Science

5. E = mc2 Einstein’s Genius • Small amount of mass can be converted into huge amount of energy • Space is curved, must include time in study of space • Overturned Sir Isaac Newton’s and others’ theories of how universe worked • Einstein Video • Albert Einstein revolutionized physics • Used math to show light can act like particles of energy • Developed special theory of relativity • No particle of matter can move faster than speed of light • Motion can be measured only from viewpoint of observer New Ideas in Science

6. Medical Breakthroughs • Preventing Disease • Breakthroughs in late 1800s as result of scientific advances earlier in century • Fundamental concepts of disease, medical care, sanitation revealed • Mysteries of what caused diseases began to be solved • Microbes and Disease • Louis Pasteur showed link between the two, 1870 • Disproved spontaneous generation concept of bacteria from nonliving matter • Showed bacteria always present though unseen, can reproduce • Fermentation • Bacteria in the air causes grape juice to turn to wine, milk to sour • Heating liquids, foods can kill bacteria, prevent fermentation • Process became known as pasteurization, makes foods germ-free

7. Medical Breakthroughs • Anthrax • Deadly disease a constant threat to people, livestock • Pasteur sought to prevent anthrax • Injected animals with vaccine containing weakened anthrax germs • Antibodies • Vaccine worked because body builds antibodies • Antibodies fight weakened germs when they enter body • Rabies • Pasteur’s next goal • Developed vaccine, 1885 • Saved life of young boy bitten by rabid dog

8. Improving Medical Care Treatment of pain American surgeon Crawford W. Long Discovered solution to pain suffered by surgery patients Patients breathed in ether, anesthetic to reduce pain and render patient unconscious Performed first painless operation, 1842 Anesthesia video Medical Breakthroughs

9. Treatment of Infections Many surgical patients died from infections English surgeon Joseph Lister, 1860s Began cleaning wounds and equipment with antiseptic containing carbolic acid Reduced post-surgery deaths in one hospital ward from 45 to 15 percent Medical Breakthroughs

10. Improved Care Hospitals • Caused dramatic decline in infant mortality • Statistics from Sweden provide example • 1800, 240 infant deaths in first year per 1,000 live births • Nearly 100 years later, only 91 infant deaths in first year per 1,000 live births • Public health improved with building of more modern hospitals • More medical professionals trained • Nursing schools trained large numbers of women, some trained as doctors • By 1900, 5 percent of American doctors were women Medical Breakthroughs

11. Psychology Pavlov’s Dogs • Study of mind, human behavior became separate field in 1890s • Observation, experiments helped psychologists explore subject • Ivan Pavlov studied dogs to show animals could be taught certain reflex actions • Pavlov rang bell each time he fed dogs • Discovered that dogs not only salivated at sight, smell of food, but also when they heard bell • Called this conditioned reflex New Ideas in Social Sciences In the late 1800s scientists expanded their focus to include the study of the mind and human societies. These new fields became known as the social sciences and include psychology, archaeology, anthropology, and sociology. By studying dogs’ behavior, Pavlov concluded that human behaviors are also a series of connected conditioned reflexes.

12. Studies of human behavior Austrian-Jewish physician Sigmund Freud Said that unconscious part of mind contains thoughts of which one is unaware Used hypnotism to explore patient’s unconscious mind Felt that repressed thoughts revealed in dreams could cause mental illness Developed psychoanalysis as therapy New Ideas in Social Sciences

13. Archeology Anthropology • Study of the past based on artifacts • Not new field of study • Early expeditions little more than treasure hunts • Began more scientific approach, mid-1800s • Carefully recorded all stages of work and preserved finds for education • Study of humanity and human ancestors • Physical anthropologists interested in how Homo sapiens developed • Cultural anthropology deals with structures of societies, became separate field 1920s • Cultural anthropologists study cultures other than their own New Ideas in Social Sciences Just as Freud studied individuals, other scientists studied people as members of groups, communities of people with a common culture.

14. Sociology Closely related to anthropology Emerged as social science late 1800s Sociologists study people in groups Usually groups are in own societies Examine societies’ institutions and sub-groups Sub-groups organized around racial or ethnic identity, gender, or age New Ideas in Social Sciences