motivation and emotion

1. 8 motivation and emotion

2. why study motivation and emotion?The study of motivation not only helps us understand why some people are more driven to achieve than others but also why some people are driven to abuse drugs. Sexual behavior is another motivated activity, one that many struggle to understand—why are there different sexual orientations, for example? Emotions are a part of everything we do, affecting our relation- ships with others and our own health, as well as influencing important decisions. In this chapter, we will explore the motives behind our actions and the origins and influences of emotions.

3. Learning Objective Menu • LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches motivation • LO 8.2 Three types of needs • LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations • LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion • LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion • LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and Cognitive-mediational theory

4. Motivation LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Motivation • Activities are started, directed, and continued • Physical or psychological needs or wants are met • Extrinsic motivation • Action leads to outcome separate from or external to the person

5. Instinct Approaches to Motivation LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Instincts • Biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior • Exist in both people and animals • Instinct approach • Assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of animals

6. Drive Reduction Approaches LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior • Need • Requirement of material such as food or water • Essential for survival of the organism

7. Drive Reduction Approaches LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior • Drive • Psychological tension and physical arousal • Arises from need • Motivates organism to act • Fulfills the need and reduces tension

8. Some people are driven to do strenuous, challenging activities even when there is no physical need to do so. When a drive is acquired through learning, it is called an acquired or secondary drive. Fulfilling an acquired drive provides secondary reinforcement. What might this rock climber find reinforcing about scaling this steep cliff?

9. Drive Reduction Theory LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Assumes behavior arises from physiological needs • Needs cause internal drives to push the organism • Satisfy need • Reduce tension and arousal

10. Drive Reduction Theory LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Primary drives • Drives involving needs of the body such as hunger and thirst • Acquired (secondary) drives • Drives learned through experience or conditioning • Examples: need for money or social approval

11. Drive Reduction Theory LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Homeostasis • Tendency for body to maintain a steady state

12. Figure 8.1 HomeostasisIn homeostasis, the body maintains balance in the body’s physical states. For example, this diagram shows how increased hunger (a state of imbalance) prompts a person to eat. Eating increases the level of glucose (blood sugar), causing the feelings of hunger to reduce. After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to stimulate the hunger drive once again, and the entire cycle is repeated.

13. Three Types of Needs LO 8.2 Three types of needs • Need for achievement (nAch) • Involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals • Includes realistic and challenging goals • Need for affiliation (nAff) • Need for friendly social interactions • Relationships with others

14. Many people are driven by a need to attain both realistic and challenging goals. This young girl seems eager to provide an answer to the teacher’s question, and the teacher’s positive feedback will help foster the girl’s need for achievement.

15. Three Types of Needs LO 8.2 Three types of needs • Need for power (nPow) • Need to have control or influence over others

16. Donald Trump stands triumphant at the opening of his Trump International Hotel and Tower in New York. Many people who are as wealthy as “The Donald” continue to buy new houses, businesses, clothing, and cars (among other things) even though they do not need them. Such actions are examples of the need for power. How might this need for power be expressed in a person’s relationships with others, such as a spouse, employee, or friend?

17. Table 9.1 Sample Items From the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire

18. Arousal Approaches LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • Stimulus motive • Appears to be unlearned • Causes an increase in stimulation • Example: curiosity

19. Arousal Approaches LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • Arousal theory • People have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension • Seek to maintain tension by increasing or decreasing stimulation • Moderate level of tension appears best for most tasks

20. This daring preschool boy has climbed high into this massive tree and looks as though he might try to climb higher still.

21. Arousal Approach to Motivation LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • Yerkes-Dodson law • Performance is related to arousal • Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance • Effect varies with the difficulty of the task: • Easy tasks require a high-moderate level • More difficult tasks require a low-moderate level

22. Arousal Approach to Motivation LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • Yerkes-Dodson law • Sensation seeker • Needs more arousal than the average person • May be related to temperament

23. Figure 8.2 Arousal and PerformanceThe optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task. We generally perform easy tasks well if we are at a high–moderate level of arousal (green) and accomplish difficult tasks well if we are at a low–moderate level (red).

24. Incentive Approaches LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • Behavior is explained as a response to an external stimulus and its rewarding properties • Incentives • Attract or lure people into action • Motivate

25. Incentive Approaches LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation • Expectancy-value theories • Tolman and others • Actions cannot be predicted without understanding beliefs, values and importance associated

26. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Presents a more positive view of human behavior • Includes both deficiency needs and growth needs

27. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Self-actualization • Point that is seldom reached • Individual has sufficiently satisfied lower needs • Achieved full human potential • Peak experiences • Times where self-actualization is temporarily achieved

28. In the movie Castaway, Tom Hanks’s character is stranded on a deserted island. His first concern is to find something to eat and fresh water to drink—without those two things, he cannot survive. Even while he is building a crude shelter, he is still thinking about how to obtain food. Once he has those needs met, however, he gets lonely. He finds a volleyball, paints a handprint and then a crude face on it, and names it “Wilson.” He talks to the volleyball as if it were a person, at first as a kind of way to talk out the things he needs to do and later as a way of staying relatively sane. The need for companionship is that strong.

29. Figure 8.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs, before being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence.

30. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Cross-cultural research • Suggests order of needs does not always hold true for other cultures • Other theorists have developed and refined Maslow’s hierarchy

31. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Alderfer (1972) • Believed that more than one need could be active at a time • Progression up and down the hierarchy is common • One need assumes greater importance at a particular time than other needs

32. Self-Determination Theory LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Three inborn universal needs to gain a complete sense of self • Autonomy • In control of one’s own behavior and goals • Competence • Able to master challenging tasks of one’s life

33. Self-Determination Theory LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Three inborn universal needs to gain a complete sense of self • Relatedness • Sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others

34. Intrinsic Motivation LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • External reward given for performance can have a negative impact • Only with tasks that are not interesting • External rewards may improve performance if value of task is understood

35. Researchers have found that when tasks are interesting, external rewards may actually increase intrinsic motivation, at least for a short while. This boy seems actively engaged in the learning process in his classroom, suggesting that he finds the subject interesting. External rewards such as praise from the teacher or gold stars may actually enhance his intrinsic motivation to succeed in this class. How might this child’s enthusiasm for learning affect the teacher’s intrinsic motivation?

36. Psychoactive Drugs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Psychoactive drugs • Alter thinking, perception, and memory • Physical Dependence • Body craves drug • Tolerance • More of drug is needed to achieve the same effect

37. One of the dangers of psychoactive drugs is that they may lead to physical or psychological dependence. Cocaine is a powerful and addictive stimulant and can be sniffed in through the nose or injected, as the man in this photograph is doing.

38. Psychoactive Drugs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Physical Dependence • Withdrawal • Physical symptoms • Can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure • Results from a lack of drug in the body system

39. Psychoactive Drugs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Psychological dependence • Drug is needed to continue emotional or psychological well-being • Powerful factor in continued drug use • Any drug can become a focus of psychological dependence • No physical withdrawal

40. Four Major Drug Categories LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Stimulants • Increase functioning of nervous system • Depressants • Decrease functioning of nervous system • Narcotics • Painkilling depressant drugs derived from opium poppy

41. Four Major Drug Categories LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Hallucinogenics • Alter perceptions • May cause hallucinations

42. Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Amphetamines • Synthesized in labs rather than found in nature • Quick tolerance and dependence • Amphetamine psychosis • Causes user to become delusional

43. Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Cocaine • Derived from coca plant leaves • Produces euphoria, energy, power, and pleasure

44. Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Nicotine • Raises blood pressure and accelerates the heart • Active ingredient in tobacco

45. Nicotine is highly addictive, and many smokers will go to great lengths to be able to smoke—including smoking right next to the “no smoking” sign.

46. Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Caffeine • Found in coffee, tea, most sodas, chocolate, some over-the-counter drugs • Mild stimulant, maintains alertness • Can increase effectiveness of pain relievers such as aspirin

47. Depressants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Known as major tranquilizers • Drugs that have a strong depressant effects • Barbiturates • Have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effect • Overdoses can lead to death • Breathing and heart action are stopped

48. Depressants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Benzodiazepines • Also called Minor Depressants • Lower anxiety • Include Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, Librium

49. Depressants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs • Alcohol • Product of fermentation or distillation of vegetable matter • 10 to 20 million alcoholics in US • Often confused as a stimulant • Alcohol induced deaths in 2003: 20,687

50. Although many young adults see drinking as a rite of passage into adulthood, few may understand the dangers of “binge” drinking, or drinking four to five drinks within a limited amount of time. Inhibitions are lowered and poor decisions may be made, such as driving while intoxicated. Binge drinking, a popular activity on some college campuses, can also lead to alcoholism.