Advanced Placement Psychology

Advanced Placement Psychology Chapter 14: Personality Personality: The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings and actions that characterize a person

Four Main Theories • Psychodynamic Theory: Freud’s theory • Trait Approach: Patterns of characteristic thoughts, feelings, & actions that form individual personalities • Social-Cognitive Approach: Roles of learning & cognition • Phenomenological Approach: How each person’s unique view of the world shapes personality

Psychodynamic Theories • Originated with Freud’s psychoanalytic theory • Freud said the unconscious was a source of powerful impulses, instincts, motives, and conflicts that energize personality. • “Free Association”

Psychodynamic ApproachIn the beginning, there was Freud… • Personality is derived from internal conflicts and how they are resolved. • Id – Pleasure Principle • Present at birth • Eros(Life Instinct) • Libido • Positive, constructive behavior • Thanatos(Death Instinct) • Aggression & destructiveness • Ego – Reality Principle • Evolves from the Id • Resolves the Id’s impulses but with respect to the rules of reality. • Superego – Conscience • Developed from internalizing parental & societal values

Ego Conscious mind Unconscious mind Superego Id Personality Structure • Freud saw human personality as an iceberg with three parts: the Ego, Superego and Id. In this model, the superego and the id were antagonist parts, regulated by the ego.

The Id • The primitive, unconscious reservoir that houses the basic motives, drives & instinctive desires that determine our personalities. • Always acts on impulse and seeks immediate pleasure • The only part of the personality present at birth

The Superego • The “police” of personality • Is responsible for morals & values learned from society • Develops as the the child forms an internal set of rules based on external experiences • The inner voice of “shoulds” and “should nots” • Often conflicts with the id

The Ego • Regulates the conflict between the id & the superego • The conscious, rational part of the mind • The ego must figure out a way to satisfy one’s desires, while not violating one’s moral code. • Upset balance = possible mental disorder

Repression and Libido • Repression • The process of pushing the needs and desires that cause guilt into the unconscious • Remain as conflicts and anxieties that interfere with daily life • Libido • People have real (as in, biological) energy inside, which controls behavior • Seeks some kind of discharge • Causes tension  if tension is not released, desires appear as dreams or fantasies

Psychosexual Stages • Freud believed our early experiences stayed with us & affected us throughout our development • Should something happen in the early years, people will have problems to overcome later: • Oedipus complex: boy in love with their mother • Identification: boys love their mom/identify with their dad • Penis envy: girls desire to have a penis-attracted to males • Fixation: occurs when development is stopped at a particular stage

Freud’s Psychosexual StagesPersonality develops depending on how we resolve the conflicts at each stage • Stage Theory: Implies that personality develops in discrete stages in a particular order. • Oral Stage[Source of pleasure = Mouth because the mouth is used to eat and explore the world] • Fixation occurs from weaning too early or too late (overeating, alcoholism, child-like dependence) • Anal Stage[Source of pleasure = Anal area because the main conflict is toilet training] • Fixation occurs when it is too harsh or occurs too early or too late. • Anal Retentive: Overly concerned with neatness (withholding feces) • Anal Expulsive: Impulsive and disorganized (expelling feces at will)

Stages in Personality DevelopmentFreud’s Psychosexual Stages • Phallic Stage[Source of pleasure = Genital area] • Oedipus Complex: Boy experiences sexual desire for the mother and a desire to eliminate the father, but the ego represses these thoughts & the boy seeks to identify with the father. • Electra Complex: Girl experiences penis envy and transfers her love to her father, but the ego represses these thoughts. • Fixation causes problems with authority figures and an inability to maintain stable love relationships • Latency Stage[Period of relative peace] • Nothing happens! • Genital Stage[Source of pleasure = Genital area (again)] • When sexual impulses begin during adolescence • Lasts until death

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Stage Focus Oral Pleasure centers on the mouth-- (0-18 months) sucking, biting, chewing Anal Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder (18-36 months) elimination; coping with demands for control Phallic Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with (3-6 years) incestuous sexual feelings Latency Dormant sexual feelings (6 to puberty) Genital Maturation of sexual interests (puberty on) Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Psychodynamic Defense MechanismsDeflecting anxiety and guilt for short-term gain • Repression • Unconsciously pushing threatening memories, urges, or ideas from conscious awareness • Forgetting unpleasant things • Rationalization • Attempts to make actions or mistakes more reasonable • Things that sound reasonable, but are not the real reasons for behavior (e.g., “I spank my child because it is good for them.” • Projection • Unconsciously attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or impulses to another person. • Instead of recognizing that you hate someone, you might think that they hate you • Reaction Formation • Defending against unacceptable impulses by acting opposite to them. • Feeling attracted to a married friend might turn into strong dislike instead

Psychodynamic Defense MechanismsDeflecting anxiety and guilt for short-term gain • Sublimation • Converting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions, and perhaps symbolically representing them. • Aggressive desires may appear as devotion to athletic excellence • Displacement • Deflecting an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one. • Denial • Simply discounting the existence of threatening impulses. • Compensation • Striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears. • Strong competitiveness might be compensating for a feeling of inferiority

Criticism of Freud • Many Freudian concepts (libido, repression) are vague • Focus is on retrospective explanation • Only looks back – doesn’t give credit to present or future • No thought given to women • The unconscious mind is not as smart/purposeful as Freud would like us to believe

Evaluation: The Psychodynamic Approach • Evidence based on a few case studies • Culturally taboo to talk about sexual abuse, so Freud attributed his patients’ stories to fantasies. • Unscientific because it is not measurable. • Id, Ego, and Superego ignores that much of human behavior is not instinctive.

Neo-Freudians • Freud’s colleagues broke away from his view, but still maintained a psychodynamic aspect • Alfred Adler • importance of childhood social tension • Karen Horney • sought to balance Freud’s masculine biases • Carl Jung • emphasized the collective unconscious • concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

Variations on Freud’s TheoryRevenge of the Neo-Freudians • Carl Jung [yoong] • Argued the libido wasn’t just sexual instinct, but a general life force • We develop differing degrees of introversion & extraversion • Introversion – Tendency to reflect on one’s own experiences • Extraversion – Tendency to focus on the outside world • Collective Unconscious • Memories that we inherit from our ancestors • Not actually backed up by empirical evidence, but was still widely accepted.

Jung continued… • Personas • Jung’s term for a “mask” people wear to hide what they really are or feel • Personality shows two characteristics: • Personal tendencies • Unique likes and dislikes that set us apart from others • “Collective” aspects • Cultural aspects that are shared by the group +

Other Neo-Freudian TheoristsThe Rebel Alliance of psychology • Alfred Adler [Striving for Superiority] • Personality Theory: People try to feel important & worthwhile • Superiority • Inferiority • Example: Bullies • Karen Horney [HORN-eye] • Denied Penis Envy & argued that men envied women because men can’t bear children. [Womb Envy] • Personality Theory: It’s all about love <3

Trait Theories • Personality Traits = the prominent characteristics each of us has • Trait Approach = views personality as stable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time & across situations

Assumptions of the Trait Theory • Personality traits are relatively stable, and therefore predictable over time • Personality traits are relatively stable across situations • People differ with regard to how much of a particular personality trait they possess

Get out a piece of paper… • Describe yourself using as many adjectives as you can. Just keep writing. The more the merrier. • Cross out the words that only describe you in certain special situations. • Group your adjectives together in whatever categories you think are appropriate. • i.e. putting together all of the words that mean “happy” or all the words that mean “outgoing”

Gordon Allport • Grouped adjectives into 2 categories of personality traits: • Central Traits • Apparent to others and hold true in different situations • Ex: Reliable, humorous, etc. • Secondary Traits • Applies to only specific situations • Less control over behavior • Ex: Dislikes crowds

Hans Eysenck • Three major dimensions of personality: • Extraversion-Introversion • Personality dimension of being outgoing and sociable, or quiet and reserved • Emotionality-stability • Personality dimension that concerns how much a person is affected by feelings • Ex: calm or anxious, depressed or upbeat, etc. • Psychoticism • Personality dimension that concerns attributes such as cruelty, coldness, and oddness, or none of these attributes

Hans Eysenck’s Major Personality Dimensions

Raymond Cattell • Divided personality traits into two major categories • Surface Traits • Characteristics that can be easily and directly observed by others on a regular basis • Ex: give in to others, won’t have an opinion • Source Traits • Underline surface behavior – cluster of surface traits • Ex: source trait is being submissive in the above example

Examining Personality TraitsThe Five-Factor Model • Extraversion how sociable or outgoing a person is • Agreeableness how well a person gets along with others • Consciousness  the degree to which people have self-discipline and the will to achieve • Emotional Stability  how stable and comfortable a person is with their emotions • Openness to Experience  a person’s curiosity or willingness to consider other opinions

The “Big Five” Personality Factors Trait Dimension Description Emotional Stability Calm versus anxious Secure versus insecure Self-satisfied versus self-pitying Extraversion Sociable versus retiring Fun-loving versus sober Affectionate versus reserved Openness Imaginative versus practical Preference for variety versus preference for routine Independent versus conforming Agreeableness Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus suspicious Helpful versus uncooperative Conscientiousness Organized versus disorganized Careful versus careless Disciplined versus impulsive The Five-Factor Model

Evaluation of the Trait Approach • Better at describing people than at understanding them • They say how people behave, but not why • Don’t say much about how traits are related to the thoughts and feelings that precede, accompany, & follow behavior • Do introverts and extraverts decide to act as they do? • Situations & interactions with others also affect behavior!

Social Cognitive Theory • Derives from experiments • Based on the idea that personality is a result of learning, perception & social interaction • Emphasizes: • The role of learned patterns of thought in guiding our actions • The fact that much of personality is learned in social situations through interaction with & observation of other people

Prominent Social-Cognitive Theories Rotter’s Expectancy Theory • Behavior is determined by cognitive expectations • What we expect to happen after the behavior • The value we place on the outcome • People learn how life’s rewards and punishments are controlled. • Internal Locus of Control • External Locus of Control

Albert Bandura & Reciprocal DeterminismA potentially vicious cycle • Behavior tends to affect the environment, which in turn may affect cognitions, which then may affect behavior, and so on… Hostile thinking leads to hostile behavior Hostile behavior creates a hostile environment Hostile behavior produces hostile thoughts Being in a hostile environment causes more hostile behaviors and thoughts Thoughts can alter perceptions of the environment, making it seem more hostile a d c e Cognitions b d Behaviors Environment

Albert BanduraSelf-Efficacy & Psychological Well-Being • Self-Efficacy– The learned expectations of success. • Overt behavior is controlled by expectations • Results of behavior shape an individual’s psychological well-being Outcome Expectation Self-Efficacy Judgment Social Activism Protest Grievance Assured opportune action Resignation Apathy Self-devaluation Despondency

Mischel and Cognitive Processes • Each person has a unique personality, which is learned at some point. • Cognitive Person Variables • Beliefs and expectancies that characterize each person as a unique individual • Five main categories of variables. • Situation Variables • Competencies • Thoughts & actions • Perceptions • How person perceives environment • Expectations • What person expects to follow from various behaviors • Subjective Values • Person’s ideals & goals • Self-Regulation and Plans • Person’s standards for self-reward & plans for reaching goals

Evaluation: Social-Cognitive Approach • Pros • Objective & experimentally oriented • Uses empirical data & operationally defined concepts • Results & principles  treatment methods • Cons • Human personality is more than a set of learned responses derived from relationships with the environment • Fails to consider unconscious processes • Neglects contributions of emotion to personality • Excludes genetics & physiology

Prominent Phenomenological TheoriesRogers’ Self Theory • Personality is the expression of each individual’s actualizing tendency as it unfolds in that individual’s uniquely perceived reality. • Actualizing Tendency – Innate inclination toward growth & fulfillment that motivates all human behavior. • Personality is a factor of actualizing tendency & other’s evaluation • Self [The “I” or “me” of experience] • Positive Regard – Approval from others • Self-Concept – The way one thinks of oneself • Congruence – Occurs when evaluations match the child’s own evaluation of self • Incongruence – Occurs when evaluations don’t match the child’s own evaluation of self • Conditions of Worth – Created when the person is evaluated instead of their behavior

Maslow’s Humanistic PsychologyTrying to be all that you can be • Self-Actualization isn’t just a human capacity, but a need. • Deficiency Orientation • A preoccupation with perceived needs for material things • People who are deficiency-oriented come to see life as meaningless, disappointing, & boring. • Growth Orientation • Not focusing on what isn’t but drawing satisfaction from what is. • Peak Experiences – Being joyous for just being human, alive, & having utilized their full potential.

Evaluation: Phenomenological Approach • Pros • Central focus is on each person’s immediate experience & on the uniqueness of each individual • Produced client-centered therapy • Cons • People may not be all inherently good and driven by an innate growth potential • Ignores: • Genetics • Learning • Situation • Unconscious • Culturally limiting: Defines “healthy” people as independent and autonomous individuals (very Western)

Assessment: Objective TestsMinnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory [MMPI & MMPI-2] • 566 true-false test developed by the University of Minnesota in the 1930’s • Clinical Scales • Ten Scales • Groups of items that, in earlier research, had elicited a characteristic pattern of responses only from people who displayed particular psychological disorders or personality characteristics • Validity Scales • Four Scales • Groups of items designed to detect whether respondents distorted their answers, misunderstood the items, or were uncooperative • “I never get angry” If someone replies “True” then they might be lying for the other questions too

Assessment: Objective TestsNeuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised • Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised [NEO-PI-R] • Based on the “Big-Five” Personality traits • Private Version • Self-Assessment • Public Version • Asks a person who knows the respondent to rate him or her • Results are often very similar between versions, but discrepancies may indicate potential problems

Assessment: Projective TestsWe do not see the world as it is, we see it as we are • Thematic Apperception Test [TAT] • Subjects asked to interpret an ambiguous image and tell a story about it • The way a person tells the story reveals what they are really like on the inside (distrusting, anxious, curious, etc.) • Rorschach Inkblot Test • Asks subjects what they see in a series of symmetrical but ambiguous inkblots • Analysis is similar to the TAT • Ambiguous stimuli make it difficult to detect what is being measured • Difficult to score & tend to be less valid & reliable than objective tests

Advanced Placement Psychology