“ No writing – no science !” Academic Writing

1. “No writing – no science!”Academic Writing Шарапкова Анастасия Андреевна warapkova@mail.ru

2. At the present understanding the process of the vection perception is an actual problem of theoretical and practical psychology.

3. Discussion + conclusion • Revising previous sections – summarizing key results • Describing relationship with exiting research • Achievement/contribution refining the implications • Limitations+ future work

4. Discussion 1. Do my data support what I set out to demonstrate at the beginning of the paper? ( -- Introduction) 2. How do my findings compare with what others have found? How consistent are they? 3. What is my personal interpretation of my findings? 4. What other possible interpretations are there? 5. What are the limitations of my study? What other factors could have influenced my findings? Have I reported everything that could make my findings invalid? 6. Do any of the interpretations reveal a possible flaw (i.e. defect, error) in my experiment? 7. Do my interpretations contribute some new understanding of the problem that I have investigated? In which case do they suggest a shortcoming in, or an advance on, the work of others? 8.What external validity do my findings have? How could my findings be generalized to other areas? ( research map of this field) Novelty 9. What possible implications or applications do my findings have? What support can I give for such implications? 10. What further research would be needed to explain the issues raised by my findings? Will I do this research myself or do I want to throw it open to the community? ( Wallwork, p. 245)

5. Strategies for the 1-st sentence • 1 ) reporting main results • ( ! Saying that your results are – is the central function of the Results, talking about what they mean - is the central function of the Discussion) • 2) revising original purpose ( aim) • ( present a consistent theory)/ (check a hypothesis) • 3) revisiting methodology

6. Read and identify the strategies The understanding that symbiontsare critical for animal development, health, and homeostasis brings with it “new” problems and opens up novel avenues of investigations. In regard to evolutionary biology, much needs to be investigated in terms of understanding the very diversity of microbes, trying to unravel their complex relations with each other and with their animal host. The evolution of bacterial symbionts and their animal hosts is still an untapped research domain of central importance for evolutionary biology, medicine, and agriculture. ( Gilbert)

7. Speciation is one of the least understood major features of evolution. The main obstacle to progress is the variety of mechanisms that might lead to the evolution of reproductive isolation (Box 1), any one of which can be difficult to rule out in a specific case. The upshot is that it is still difficult to point to even two species in nature and state with confidence the mechanism that produced them. ( compare – introduction ECOLOGICAL SPECIATION (see Glossary) occurs when DIVERGENT SELECTION on traits between populations or subpopulations in contrasting environments leads directly or indirectly to the evolution of REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION. The concept of ecological speciation dates back to the 1940s, from the time the BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT was developed.) DolphSchluter

8. We extracted DNA from cultures of the tardigrade H. dujardini that were founded by a single parthenogenic animal, and sequenced the genome to high average coverage (126-fold) using a combination of IlluminaMoleculo long reads and short insert mate pair libraries (Fig. S1A). A total of 26.8 Gb of raw reads resulted in an assembly 212.3Mb in length containing 38,145 predicted genes (Fig. S1 B and C). The draft genome is comparable to existing eukaryotic reference genomes in terms of the percentage of guanine-cytosine ( Boothby)

9. In many ways, Wolbachia has come of age. It is now emerging as a potent evolutionary force. Its interactions with host sex-determination systems and the cell cycle place it at the heart of organismal biology, and its effect on host populations can frame sexual behaviors and species diversity. Moreover, Wolbachia can become indispensable to its hosts, suggesting reproductive parasitism as a possible pathway for the emergence of evolutionarily stable and intimate associations. The complete genome will give new impetus to understanding the mechanistic basis of Wolbachia/host interactions, which will in turn provide a fuller understanding of the degree to which this bacterium has framed its hosts’ biology.

10. Verbs to be used in discussion/conclusion • Give • provide/ • enable • Facilitate • Solve • Remove the need for • lead

11. Useful phrases Изучение генома даст новый стимул к изучению наши результаты дают неоспоримые доказательства того Наши результаты показывают явное различие между Эти результаты также поддерживают тот взгляд, что... — Тем не менее, развитые нами методы дают основание для... Эти результаты подтверждают данные in vitro и поддерживают идею, что… Это заключение базируется на тех же идеях, которые приводят к... — Эти кажущиеся тривиальными результаты приводят к... Результаты, полученные в нашем исследовании представляются основой для будущих исследований. Методология и совокупность процедур показали, что данный путь является перспективным для сравнения типов рака. Эти данные перспективны и должны быть исследованы на других моделях Все результаты, вместе взятые показывают, что ингибирование mTOR дают надежду ( обоснование) для лучшего ( улучшенного лечения Studying the genomewill give new impetus to Our results provide compelling evidence Our results provide ( support) a clear distinction between The results also (lend ) support to the view that... However, the methods we have developed provide a basis for... These findings give credibility to the in vitro data and supports the idea that… This conclusion is based on the same ideas that lead to... These seemingly trivial results lead to... Our study provides the framework for future studies The methodology and combination of procedures have shown this to be a promisingdirection for comparing cancer types This finding ( These findings) is ( are) promising and should be explored on other models Collectively, these findings suggest that mTOR inhibition holdspromise for improved treatment

12. 1. A greater understanding of our findings could lead to a theoretical improvement in ... 2. This analysis has concentrated on . . . 3. The findings of this study are restricted to . . . 4. The lack of . . . means that we cannot be certain . . . 5. The limitations of this study are clear: . . . 6. We would like to point out that we have not . . . 7. This study has addressed only the question of... 8. Although this is a small study, the results can be generalized to ... 9. Our results may hold true for other countries in Asia. 10. Our research only focuses on x, whereas it might be important to include y as well. 11. We did not pay much attention to ... The reason for this was ... 12.The questions of gender diversity were beyond the scope We have not been able to explain whether x = y. A larger sample would be able to make more accurate predictions. 1. However, the findings do not imply . . . 2. The results of this study cannot be taken as evidence for . . . 3. Unfortunately, we are unable to determine from this data . . . 4. We studied only a limited number of samples. A greater number of samples could lead to a higher generalization of our results … 5. 6. It should be noted that this study has examined only . . .

13. Limitations A. Limitations of Research Scope ( beyond the) 1. It should be noted that this study has examined only . . . 2. This analysis has concentrated on . . . 3. The findings of this study are restricted to . . . 4. This study has addressed only the question of... 5. The limitations of this study are clear: . . . 6. We would like to point out that we have not . . . 7. We studied only a limited number of samples. A greater number of samples could lead to a higher generalization of our results … 8. Although this is a small study, the results can be generalized to ... 9. Our results may hold true for other countries in Asia. 10. Our research only focuses on x, whereas it might be important to include y as well. 11. We did not pay much attention to ... The reason for this was ... B. Limitations in Conclusions. 1. However, the findings do not imply . . . 2. The results of this study cannot be taken as evidence for . . . 3. Unfortunately, we are unable to determine from this data . . . 4. The lack of . . . means that we cannot be certain . . . 5. We have not been able to explain whether x = y. A larger sample would be able to make more accurate predictions. 6. A greater understanding of our findings could lead to a theoretical improvement in ...

14. Can Must Can not Could not might may could should

15. Be upfront about your findings and achievements. In my work as a referee I often have difficulty in understanding how significant the authors feel their work is, and why their findings add value. This is because authors are not explicit enough – they don’t signal to me (and the reader) that they are about to say, or are now saying, something important. The result is that their achievement may be hidden in the middle of a nondescript sentence in a • nondescript paragraph … and no one will notice it.

16. Hedging/boosting • -The result is somewhat surprising. • The result is very surprising. • A number of physical housing features lead to unintentional injuries. • A number of physical housing features may lead to unintentional injuries • A number of physical housing features may certainly lead to unintentional injuries • Such improvements would allow scientists to examine organisms in nature in detail. • Such improvements will allow scientists to examine organisms in nature in detail.

17. Adverbs • Frequently, often, largely, typically, almost never, rarely, seldom, hardly ever, possibly, perhaps, probably, likely, general in general, favourably, usually invariably

18. “We are not nouns, we are verbs. I am not a thing - an actor, a writer – I am a person who does things - I write, I act - and I never know what I'm going to do next. I think you can be imprisoned if you think of yourself as a noun. Steven Fry The thought,… departs, through the verb, from its abode and steps into reality Humboldt

19. Verbs • Prove demonstrate confirm establish • Admit recognize acknowledge • Claim argue contend insist assume • Assert maintain suspect suggest speculate stress recommend • Reveal show point out explain realize notice find conclude determine • Discover propose hypothesize estimate

20. Read the following list of verbs and decide which ones are STRONG/ NEUTRAL/ WEAK • Advance- imply-establish • Add- assert- claim • Analyze-show-think • State- remark-suggest • Seem to- predict- propose • Declare- mention- observe • Imply- dispute- indicate • Depict- declare- infer • Write- stress- assume

21. Read the ways to present the same information in active and passive. Then try to make up the sentences of you own and decide what would be better in each case. • 1a The ends of a spindle are suspended by rigid side-arms from a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame. • 1b We suspended the ends of a spindle by rigid side-arms from a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame. • 1c It is the ends of a spindle that are suspended by rigid side-arms from a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame. • 1d It is by rigid side arms that the ends of a spindle are suspended from a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame. • 1e It is from a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame that the ends of a spindle are suspended by rigid side-arms. • 1f What is suspended by rigid side-arms from a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame is the ends of a spindle. • 1g What the ends of a spindle are suspended from by rigid side-arms is a bracket protruding to one side of the sledge frame. The ends of a spindle a bracket protruding rigid side-arms one side of the sledge frame

22. Further research

23. We need to acquire/ gain competence/ realize /solve…

24. Inversion • In regards to medicine, first and foremost stands the challenge of elucidating the complex relationship between health, disease, and changes in the human microbiome. The interactions of host genome, symbionts, and diet become critical.

25. What to cut? • Wordiness When your story is ready for rewrite, cut it to the bone. Get rid of every ounce of excess fat. This is going to hurt; revising a story down to the bare essentials is always a little like murdering children, but it must be done. S. King

26. It is a well-known commonality that written communications of all sorts have a propensity to descend quite deeply into a kind of approach imposed very often unwittingly by the author that absolutely ensures the fact that the desired message is not, for the most part, uncomplicated, a stylistic habit that, unless regarded with utmost concern and consideration – an attentiveness boasted by merely a few writers – can turn into an abstraction to fulsome understanding. (Koerber, 2015)

27. In the case of Mais (TC, 1968), the taxpayer was able to exclude from gross income embezzled funds that were repaid during the year the funds were embezzled but the taxpayer was not allowed to exclude embezzled funds to be repaid in a subsequent year. • Mais (TC, 1968) allowed the taxpayer to exclude embezzled funds repaid during the same year but not those repaid in a later year.

28. Redundancy. • The boat was long in size • He dashed quickly across the busy road • My invention is a great new innovation • The enemy forces have retreated back to the previous positions • Poly s a personal friend of mine • If recognition sensitivity were directly proportional to the amount of information in a stimulus this would give the obtained results, risky exemplars being associated with good recognition at high risk junctions but with bad recognition at low risk junctions. Notice that, as the electronegativity of the halogens decreases down the group (see section 2.2), so does the lattice enthalpy. • Neither ruling lists Cuba as a country that the United States recognizes for purposes of the foreign tax credit.

29. coupledtogether ⇒ coupled • theobtainedresults ⇒ results • determine the point of onset of… ⇒ determinetheonsetof • decreasesdown ⇒ decreases • such as e.g. ⇒ such as • such as…, etc. ⇒ such as (or for example) • effectdueto ⇒ effectof • on the order of a few ⇒ a few • due to / in order to – infinitives • A good example here is "rather small". In this case, compare it with something larger.

30. Phoney intensifiers • I am absolutely confident in my abilities • We are basically good students • David certainly needs to write a paper • The results are very good and very interesting • I’m totally sure I passed the test • She is quite beautiful • Of course the solution is rather simple: lowering taxes would essentially increase the well-being of ordinary people.

31. Lipoproteins come in various shapes and sizes but most of the cholesterol is carried in rather small particles called low density lipoproteins or LDL — so-called because of the preponderance of lipid to protein, giving the particles a low density. •  Although these encroachments may appear to be rather small, they could give your neighbour valid grounds for complaint, which could result in costly legal proceedings. • Quite possibly some of our breeding birds use one or two alternative sites, perhaps particularly where they are breeding on rather small stretches of water.

32. Stretchers • In order to get to the store we have to cross the railroad tracks • At this point in time let’s read this book • Hemingway’s use of economy is his hall mark • William persuades by means of logic • Sandy started to stop crying • The fact that music is a big business I well-known • Of particular importance to the subject of this paper, they emphasize in their summary that the client in the studies reviewed ‘is engaged as a voluntary collaborator’, and his ‘motivations were directed toward what the social workers were attempting to provide’. • One case of particular importance in this field was brought by the Equal Opportunities Commission which, in addition to its formal powers of investigation has legal authority to pursue cases in the courts.

33.  Assessing bimodality to detect the presence of a dual cognitive process. • Using the dwell time, number of sensor firings, and number of transitions between major living spaces (living room, dining room, kitchen and bathroom) as features in the model, and self report from two subjects as ground truth, we were able to accurately detect the presence of visitors in the home with a sensitivity and specificity of 0.90 and 0.89 for subject 1, and of 0.67 and 0.78 for subject 2, respectively. • This report gives guidelines on how to perform hazard identification brainstorms. • When candidates have been fully prepared for the specification but the wrong texts have been chosen, special consideration may be given at the discretion of the awarding body. • I must give consideration to every person in the company • The chemical substances were mixed in order to create the reaction • The fact that media history is a burgeoning scholarly field is undeniable • Mc Luhan’s use of probes confused many people. In the study of communication, the effects of media are a prime concern • There is a potentially serious concern with the validity of the results due to the fact that the experimental design may result in overfitting. 

34. X is of particular importance ⇒ X is particularly important • X is only of an approximate nature ⇒ X is only approximate • To detect the presence of an atmosphere ⇒ to detect an atmosphere • To perform an identification ⇒ to identify • Analyses were made ⇒ We analyzed • To make adjustments to ⇒ to adjust • To give consideration to ⇒ to consider • It is shown in Fig. 2 that ⇒ Figure 2 shows that • Concerning the explosion, its effect is… ⇒ The effect of the explosion is… • The intersection of x and y occurs ⇒ x intersects y • We aim at estimating (If not in the abstract) ⇒ We estimate • Make a comparison with ⇒ to compare… (Likewise other noun versions of active verbs, when not needed for meaning) • Due to the fact that ⇒ because • Show strong indications of something ⇒ to indicate something strongly • Is in contradiction with ⇒ contradicts • Is found to be in agreement with ⇒ agrees with

35. Thickners Therefore, it is clear that we must not study after the party. It has been therefore mentioned that Shakespeare’s work is significant Herein lies the key point. Sarah found the means whereby she could cheat on tomorrow’s test. John likes ice cream and Joe likes popsicles. The former also eats deli sandwiches while the latter eats subs. I am speaking to you of language practices about which much has been said. The road to the store, which wound around the forest, was closed. _ aforementioned ( formal but possible) a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind or a conclusion to which all of us would readily assent will save many a sentence from coming down with a bump

36. Redundant negatives • In my opinion it is not an unjustifiable assumption that • The conclusion is not unlikely • It is unlikely there will be objections to the fact that in any science it is necessary to seek to improve the accuracy and adequacy of measurement and analytical tools. • In the given paper are not going to discuss the specifics of the taphonomic pathways of Lagerstätten, which are extremely variable (Butterfield, 1994, 1995, 2003, Cai et al., 2012), but instead we will discuss one important question, namely why does decay of dead carcasses stop or delay allowing the fossilization to start before the complete degradation of a body.

37. An abstract is a succinct summary of a longer piece of work, It should report the most essential facts, and should not exaggerate or contain material that is not there. • An abstract is, in some ways, different from other forms of academic writing; you have to make a rhetorical adjustment. For example, while in the full paper it is essential to provide a context for the work you have done, in the abstract you assert a reason why the work needed to be done, perhaps in no more than one sentence Abstracts For a conference Descriptive Result-driven Two main functions – selecting and indexing

41. Structure • topic, background: • Motivation: • Problem statement: • Approach: • Results: • Conclusions:

43. 1) • With its focus on the research cycle, scientific methodology has devoted a great deal of attention to the phase of problem solving. However, the issue of problem choice has been relatively neglected, notwithstanding its relevant epistemological implications. What are the criteria used by PhD students to set their research agenda? To what extent is the research agenda driven by pure curiosity about social phenomena? How much is it a matter of bargaining with various resource limitations? A survey was carried out among PhD students of European universities to examine the criteria used in the choice of their dissertation topics. The analysis sheds light on the way scientific knowledge is crafted, and about the challenges and limitations researchers face during this process.

44. A revised version We are currently carrying out a survey of 500 PhD students of European universities to examine the criteria employed in the choice of their dissertation topics. Analysis of the data will explore the relationship between factors such as the duration of the PhD programme, the availability of a scholarship or background experience in the field and PhD students’ criteria for choosing the specific issue that they wish to study. Initial results from the first 20 surveys seem to indicate the importance of the availability of funding and the potential job prospects rather than preferences driven by pure interest for its own sake. We hope to shed light on the way scientific knowledge is crafted and about challenges and limitations young researchers face during this process.

45. How to start an abstract? We reviewed the published data on study of_________________ This paper gives an overview of________ This paper gives a review of____ This paper rigorously establishes______ This paper attempts to explain why____  This paper considers ____ This paper examines how______ This paper presents ___________  This paper identifies _________ This paper summarizes__________ The paper reviews the problem of ___ This paper develops, measures, and tests___ This paper explores___

46. Useful phrases • Background + problem • appear as an inherently multidimensional problem • This raises several basic questions: yet the mechanisms conferring robustness are only beginning to be understood. • An expanding number of studies investigate the biophysical mechanisms generating intra- and inter-specific complexity and diversity of morphological traits. However, classification of morphologic characters is often limited to qualitative descriptions or simple quantitative analysis. To address this issue, we have combined • Tumor relapse is a major complication after treatment of cancer-patients, • The intracellular pH (pHi) has been shown to have a pivotal role in cell division since small variations can lead to major changes, including cell cycle arrest.

47. Aims and targets + results • Here, we show theoretically and experimentally that • We present a structure-based analysis of the only available high-resolution map describing the tolerance to all substitutions in all positions of a functional enzyme, namely a TEM lactamase previously studied through deep sequencing of mutants growing in competition experiments. • These findings provide fundamental insights into the chemistry underlying protein evolution and design • Our preliminary results suggest that the ensemble-offorests model could be used to generate new hypotheses on the interplay of regulatory pathways in a variety of biological processes • To this end, we present the full time-dependent analytical solution for a class of MEs relevant to gene expression, where the transcription and degradation rates are arbitrary functions of time. We show how this time course single-cell solution encompasses and differs from existent solutions based on a population snapshot viewpoint • we show how the model can be compared with data from laboratory evolution experiments, • We present results for synthetic single-cell data of differently sized cell-signaling test systems and illustrate the effect of single-cell data’s statistics on parameter inference. • Our approach / the aim of the study / to+ infinitive / with the aim of

48. What we shall talk about • We will discuss these questions in the context of molecular information processing systems. Our prime example will be the ribosome, • Our theoretical model of Pom1 dynamics predicts both properties with a high degree of precision. • Such a model is key to fully understanding certain pathologies for which the pHi is significantly modified, such as cancer.

49. Пример хорошей аннотации. Введение в тему Наша тема проблема и метод Гипотеза Наши результаты Актуальность Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), or the transfer of genes betweenspecies, has been recognized recently as more pervasive than previouslysuspected. Here, we report evidence for an unprecedenteddegree of HGT into an animal genome, based on a draft genomeof a tardigrade, Hypsibiusdujardini. Tardigrades are microscopiceight-legged animals that are famous for their ability to surviveextremeconditions. Genome sequencing, direct confirmation ofphysical linkage, and phylogenetic analysis revealed that a largefraction of the H. dujardini genome is derived from diverse bacteria as well as plants, fungi, and Archaea. We estimate that approximately one-sixth of tardigrade genes entered by HGT, nearly doublethe fraction found in the most extreme cases of HGT into animalsknown to date. Foreign genes have supplemented, expanded,and even replaced some metazoan gene families within the tardigrade genome. Our results demonstrate that an unexpectedly largefraction of an animal genome can be derived from foreign sources.We speculate that animals that can survive extremes may be particularly prone to acquiring foreign genes.

50. The superphylumPanarthropoda (Arthropoda, Onychophora, and Tardigrada) exhibits a remarkable diversity of segment morphologies, enabling these animals to occupy diverse ecological niches. The molecular identities of these segments are specified by Hox genes and other axis patterning genes during development [1 and 2]. Comparisons of molecular segment identities between arthropod and onychophoran species have yielded important insights into the origins and diversification of their body plans [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9]. However, the relationship of the segments of tardigrades to those of arthropods and onychophoranshas remained enigmatic [10 and 11], limiting our understanding of early panarthropod body plan diversification. Here, we reveal molecular identities for all of the segments of a tardigrade. Based on our analysis, we conclude that tardigrades have lost a large intermediate region of the body axis—a region corresponding to the entire thorax and most of the abdomen of insects—and that they have lost the Hox genes that originally specified this region. Our data suggest that nearly the entire tardigrade body axis is homologous to just the head region of arthropods. Based on our results, we reconstruct a last common ancestor of Panarthropoda that had a relatively elongate body plan like most arthropods and onychophorans, rather than a compact, tardigrade-like body plan. These results demonstrate that the body plan of an animal phylum can originate by the loss of a large part of the body.