1 / 143

CHAPTER 6, 7, 10 NOTES

CHAPTER 6, 7, 10 NOTES. EXAM 2 NOTES INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY. CHAPTER 6 - LEARNING. 1. WHAT IS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING? HOW IS IT RELATED TO LEARNING? Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes as a result of experience. How do individuals learn?

urian
Download Presentation

CHAPTER 6, 7, 10 NOTES

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript


  1. CHAPTER 6, 7, 10 NOTES EXAM 2 NOTES INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY

  2. CHAPTER 6 - LEARNING • 1. WHAT IS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING? HOW IS IT RELATED TO LEARNING? • Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes as a result of experience. • How do individuals learn? • By identifying relationships between events and noting regularity in the environment.

  3. Habituation is the fading of a response to a stimulus and can be used as an indicator of learning. • Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus triggering a natural reflex until the neutral stimulus also triggers the reflex response.

  4. Classical conditioning has 3 phases: (1)identifying a reflex and a neutral stimulus you are interested in; • (2) pairing the reflex and the neutral stimulus; • (3)responding with the reflex response to the previously neutral stimulus alone.

  5. 2. HOW CAN INDIVIDUALS LEARN FEAR? • The strength and ease of learning (classical conditioning) depends on the nature of the CS and the UCS and • how they are associated.

  6. 3. HOW DOES STIMULUS INTENSITY AFFECT CONDITIONING OR LEARNING? • Stimulus intensity is a characteristic of the UCS; • conditioning or learning happens more quickly and easily if the UCS is stronger and • if the number of associations is increased.  

  7. Delayed conditioning is most effective and is accomplished by presenting the CS first and • then presenting the UCS, and • terminating both at the same time. • In this method, the CS becomes a reliable predictor of the UCS.

  8. 4. WHAT IS TASTE AVERSION LEARNING? HOW IS IT RELATED TO CLASSICAL CONDITIONING? • Learning to avoid eating or drinking something because of an unpleasant association to the taste. • Taste aversion or avoidance is an example of classical conditioning.

  9. 5. HOW DOES BIOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESS AFFECT CONDITIONING? • Some responses learned more quickly and easily than others when individuals are biologically prepared to learn them. • Example: taste aversion may be learned because it is dangerous to survival to eat a harmful substance. • Examples include: we are more likely to learn to fear dogs, snakes, and spiders than doors and pencils.

  10. 6. HOW DOES PREDICTIVE VALUE AFFECT CONDITIONING? • Predictive value = ability of the CS to reliably predict or signal the UCS. • Examples: rats became ill every time they drank the plastic-tasting water. • Cancer patients felt nauseated only when they ate a particular flavor of ice cream.

  11. 7. WHAT IS LEARNED IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING? • We learn to produce an adaptive, automatic response when the CS or previously neutral stimulus reliably predicts an important event.

  12. 8. WHAT ARE THREE ASPECTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OVER TIME? • (a) stimulus generalization: responding to in a similar way to events, objects, or individuals that are similar but  not identical to the original CS • (b) stimulus discrimination: responding differently  to events, objects, or individuals who are similar but not identical to the original CS. • (c) extinction: gradual disappearance of CR by eliminating the association between the CS and the UCS.

  13. 9. WHAT ARE TWO EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONING ? • (a) phobias and anxiety: • phobias are strong fears of objects or situations that are not objectively dangerous or that are less dangerous than a person's response would suggest. • Anxiety is an intense fear response that usually occurs when an individual experiences conflict or threat. --

  14. (b) promoting health and treating illness: systematic desensitization is a procedure that associates a new response such as relaxation with a feared stimulus. • Medical applications have included treating allergies and hay fever by classically conditioning responses of the immune system.

  15. 10. WHAT ARE INSTRUMENTAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING? • Instrumental conditioning occurs when  responses are learned and repeated that produce some rewarding or desired effect.  • These forms of learning are based on the law of effect

  16. that states that a response made in the presence of a stimulus and followed by a reward is more likely to occur the next time the stimulus is present. • Operant conditioning is the process of learning responses as a result of particular consequences (such as reinforcement or lack of reinforcement).  

  17. 11. WHAT ARE THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING? • Operant: a response that operates or has an effect on the environment. • Reinforcer or reinforcement: event or object that increases the probability or likelihood that a response will occur. • May be positive or negative. • Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a response occurring again. • Positive reinforcers strengthen responses by being present and • negative reinforcers strengthen responses by being taken away or avoided.

  18. Superstitious behavior results from accidental reinforcement where reward follows behavior through luck or coincidence. • Extinction is the process of weakening behavior by not reinforcing it. • Discriminative stimuli are objects, events, or experiences that signal whether reinforcement is likely to occur. • --

  19. Stimulus control is available through discriminative stimuli and • allows an individual to learn which behaviors are appropriate and which are not. • Stimulus generalization occurs when we give a similar response to a similar but not identical stimulus to the original stimulus.

  20. Stimulus discrimination occurs when we give a different response to a similar but not identical stimulus.

  21. 12. HOW DOES SHAPING RELATE TO FORMING AND STRENGTHENING OPERANT BEHAVIORS? • Shaping: • reinforcing successive approximations or responses that are successively more similar to the desired response. • Shaping is useful because often the exact, desired response does not occur spontaneously.

  22. 13. HOW DO DELAY AND SIZE OF REINFORCEMENT AFFECT OPERANT CONDITIONING? • Learning occurs faster if • (a) reinforcement delay is short and • (b) reinforcement size is large.

  23. 14. HOW DO SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT AFFECT OPERANT CONDITIONING? • Continuous reinforcement is delivered every time the response occurs.

  24. Partial reinforcement occurs only part of the time. • Partial reinforcement occurs in 4 basic types: • (a)fixed ratio, • (b)variable ratio, • (c)fixed interval, and • (d)variable interval. --

  25. There are three basic response patterns: • (a) fixed ratio and variable ratio produce high rates of behavior; • (b)fixed interval produces a scalloped effect in which response rates drops immediately after reinforcement and increases gradually as the time approaches for the next reinforcement; --

  26. (c) variable interval produces a slow, steady rate of responding because of unpredictable timing of reinforcement.  

  27. 15. HOW DO SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT AFFECT EXTINCTION OF OPERANT BEHAVIOR? • Behavior learned under partial reinforcement schedules is more difficult to extinguish than behavior learned under continuous reinforcement. • Examples: (a) a slot machine gives partial reinforcement when it operates correctly ; • (b) a vending machine gives continuous reinforcement when the machine operates correctly.

  28. 16. WHAT EVENTS CAN ACT AS REWARDS AND MOTIVATE LEARNING? • Any object, event, or situation or individual can act as a reinforcer • if paired with another object, event, situation, or individual that is already reinforcing. • An important distinction is between primary and secondary reinforcers. • Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing and rewarding. • Examples of primary reinforcers are pleasurable touch, food, water, pain, and air.

  29. Secondary reinforcers are learned, including money, grades, and praise. • Secondary reinforcers are neutral at first and later acquire reinforcing characteristics through associations with primary reinforcers. --

  30. The Premack principle is based on the idea of a hierarchy of behavioral preference, • with items ranked from most to least reinforcing or desirable. • Any highly frequent activity, object, event, or situation can come to reinforce or strengthen a less frequent behavior.

  31. 17. WHAT IS NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AND HOW DOES IT AFFECT LEARNING? • Negative reinforcement is escaping or avoiding a unpleasant event, object, or experience. • Effects have been studied using escape and avoidance conditioning. • Avoidance occurs when we learn to avoid or prevent exposure to an unpleasant situation or aversive reinforcer.  • Escape occurs when we learn to end an unpleasant or aversive reinforcer. --

  32. Escape or avoidance behavior is a difficult habit to  break • because of reduced fear, anxiety, or other unpleasant emotion associated with the escape or avoidant behavior.

  33. 18. WHAT IS PUNISHMENT AND HOW DOES IT AFFECT LEARNING? • Punishment occurs when we experience an unpleasant emotion, event, or situation. • Effect of punishment is to decrease the likelihood of a response occurring immediately prior to experiencing the punishment.

  34. Punishment occurs as the presence of an unpleasant event or experience or the ending of a pleasant event or experience.

  35. 19. HOW CAN WE BE MORE LIKELY TO USE PUNISHMENT WISELY? • Realize and be aware of the drawbacks: • (a)can produce undesirable side effects; • (b)often ineffective unless occurring immediately after the undesirable behavior; • (c) often results in aggressive responses; --

  36. (d) often effective only in specific situations; • (e) may produce misunderstanding.

  37. Realize and use positive guidelines: • (a) specify why punishment is used and distinguish between behavior and being punished and the person to prevent unhealthy fear  and anger; --

  38. (b) should be immediate and severe enough to be effective; • (c) identify and positively reinforce more desirable responses.

  39. 20. WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING? • (a) treating problem behavior, using discriminative stimuli such as overeating, smoking, and other substance abuse; • --

  40. (b) learned helplessness, which is the tendency to give up efforts to control or influence the environment after frequent failure experiences; -

  41. believing that nothing you can do will change your life or influence your destiny can have compelling influence • you may stop acting to improve the situation and endure painful situations passively. -

  42. (c) improving education: • successful strategies include operant conditioning, - • includes positively reinforcing desirable behavior, • Giving immediate feedback regarding mistakes. -

  43. Emphasize positive reinforcement, group reinforcement, and family involvement • Example using other animals: • http://www.youtube.com/v/fcdYIL_jy-8

  44. results in greater success than interventions not using these components.

  45. 21. WHAT DID WE LEARN FROM THE BOBO STUDIES? • In general that observational learning can occur. • Specifically that: • (a) those who observed adults being rewarded for aggression showed the most aggressive behavior more quickly; • (b) those who observed the adults being punished for aggressive behavior showed the least aggressive behavior; --

  46. (c) those who observed adults who were neither rewarded nor punished for aggressive behavior • learned and imitated the aggressive behavior and demonstrated observational learning.

  47. 22. WHAT IS OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING AND WHAT ARE 4 REQUIREMENTS FOR THIS TYPE OF LEARNING? • (a) attention: focus reasonably close awareness of the behavior; • (b) retention - remember what you observe;

  48. (c) physical ability to produce the behavior - physically capable of reproducing the behavior; • (d) motivation -desire or reason to perform the behavior.

  49. CHAPTER 7  MEMORY

More Related