Ch. 2

1. Ch. 2 Social Research

2. What is a Valid Sociological Topic? • Macro - Broad Matters – large scale features of social structure. • Micro - Individualistic Matters – places emphasis on social interaction, or what people do when they come together.

3. Sources of Knowledge About Society • Four major nonscientific sources of knowledge • Intuition – quick and ready insight not based on rational thought • Common sense – refers to opinions widely held because they seem so obviously correct; what everyone knows may not be true • Authority – someone who supposedly has special knowledge that not everyone has • Tradition – knowledge because that is what those older than us state as fact

4. Sources of Knowledge About Society Nonscientific knowledge often provides false or misleading information, therefore we need to question what we think we know. We need to seek an understanding of where and how the information was gathered. Application of the scientific method when doing and accepting research is very helpful.

5. Sources of Knowledge About Society Science • Objectivity – scientists are expected to prevent their personal biases from influencing the interpretation of their results (Weber’s concept verstehen). Data is to be interpreted on the basis of merit. • Verifiability – a study can be repeated by others. This exposes one work to critical analysis, retesting, and revision by colleagues.

6. A Research Model • Selecting a Topic • Defining a Problem • Reviewing the Literature • Formulating a Hypothesis • Choosing a Research Method • Collecting Data • Analyzing Results • Sharing Results/Writing up and Publishing

7. 1. Selecting a Topic & 2. Defining the Problem • Selecting a topic is guided by sociological curiosity, interest in a particular topic, research funding from a governmental or private source, and pressing social issues. • Questions addressed here in the development of stating the problem include: • What is the topic for investigation? • In what is the researcher interested in learning more information? • How will society and research be enriched from the information to be gathered?

8. 3. Reviewing the Literature Involves specifying what the researcher wants to learn about the topic. Examine the existing literature for relevant theories and previous research methods and findings. How does previous research inform your topic?

9. 4. Formulating Hypotheses Hypothesis – tentative, testable statements of relationship among variables. Operationalization – defining simple, observable procedures. Conceptualization – clearly stating what variables mean.

10. 5. Choose a Research Method Population – all those people with the characteristics a researcher wants to study. Sample – a limited number of cases drawn from the larger population. It is important to select a random and stratified sample in order for the researcher to make sound generalizations from the data

11. 6. Collecting Data • Three basic ways of gathering data in sociological research: • Asking people questions – Survey • Observing behavior – Participant Observation • Analyzing existing materials and records – Secondary Analysis and Document Analysis • Validity and Reliability

12. 7. Analyzing Data • Before analyzing the data and after it is collected, it must also be classified or coded. • Quantitative or Qualitative • When looking over the data collected, the researcher is looking to see whether or not the identified hypotheses are supported.

13. 8. Writing up and Publishing Regardless of whether the sample was of a large size or the hypotheses were supported, the findings of the research should be written up and reported. The researcher will reflect on whether the methods used were adequate, were there limitations in the study, and in what ways were the hypotheses accepted, rejected, or modified. By making the information public, it makes it possible for others to: Duplicate/replicate the research conduct a slightly different study or proceed in a very different direction.

14. The Research Model • Reliability • …a measurement technique that yields consistent results on repeated application. • Validity • …exists when a measurement technique actually measures what it is designed to measure. • Replication • …the duplication of the same study of ascertain its accuracy.

15. The Research Model

16. Research Methods Surveys – people are asked to respond to a series of questions by mail, email, face-to-face, and/or by telephone. • Selecting a Sample • Determine population, Select sample • Random Sample– a sample of the population where every member of the population has equal opportunity of being selected. • Stratified Random Sample – population is divided into categories/subgroups such as sex, age, race; subjects are then selected randomly from each category. This is to ensure the proportion of persons in a given category reflects the population at large.

17. Research Methods Questionnaires – are written • Self-Administered • Ideal for studying large numbers of people. • Low Cost • Representative samples are selected. • Relatively precise. • Permit the comparison of responses.

18. Research Methods Interviews • More Researcher Control • Time Consuming • Interviewer Bias • Structured Interviews • Close-ended Questions – limited, predetermined set of answers are provided (i.e., multiple choice). May fail to elicit the participants underlying attitudes and opinions. • Unstructured Interviews • Open-ended Questions – asks the respondent to answer in his or her own words. Not always easy to quantify. • Establishing Rapport

19. Research Methods • Disadvantages of survey research • surveys are expensive • questionnaires may not include unanticipated information • responses rates are often low • wording may introduce bias • surveys cannot probe deeply into context

20. Research Methods Participant Observation • Researcher Participates • Done for Exploratory Work • Generates Hypotheses

21. Research Methods Case Studies • Focus on Single • Event, situation, individual, group, community • Reveals Detail • Accomplished primarily through intensive observation, information obtained from informants, and informal interviews.

22. Research Methods Disadvantages of Case Studies/Participant Observations Findings from one case may not be generalizable to similar situations. Possibility of bias of field researcher; researcher often has to rely on personal judgment and interpretation. Lack of objectivity and standardized research procedures makes it difficult for other researchers to replicate.

23. Research Methods Secondary Analysis • the use of previously collected information • Permits high quality research. • Low cost. • Reveals changes in variables over an extended period of time. • Sources include government reports, company records, voting records, prison records, police reports, books, newspapers, and reports from research done by others.

24. Secondary Analysis • Advantages • Permit the study of issue over time. • Researcher cannot influence the answers. • Disadvantages • Existing information may not exactly suit current researcher’s needs. • People who originally collected the data may have been biased. • May be too old to be valid. • Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data Quality

25. Research Methods Experiments • Experimental Group • Control Group • Independent Variables • Dependent Variables

26. Research Methods Unobtrusive Measures • Observe People Without Them Knowing • Question of Ethics

28. Deciding Which Method to Use • Access to Resources • Access to Subjects • Purpose of Research • Researcher’s Background and Training

29. Deciding Which Method to Use • Quantitative Research Methods • Emphasis on Precise Measurement • Uses Statistics and Numbers • Qualitative Research Methods • Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and Interpreting Behavior

30. How Not to do Research • Choose Biased Sample • Ask Biased Questions • List Biased Choices • Discard Undesirable Results • Misunderstand Subjects World • Analyze Data Incorrectly

31. Controversy in Sociological Research • Poke into Private Areas of Lives • Threatens Those with a Stake

32. Gender in Sociological Research • Affects Orientation and Attitudes • Interviewer Bias • Women and Men Lead Different Lives

33. Ethics in Sociological Research • Sociologists are committed to: • Objectivity • Openness, Honesty, and Truthfulness • Highest technical research standards • Accurate reporting of methods and findings • Forbids Falsifying Results • Condemns Plagiarism • Subjects’ Informed Consent • Subjects’ Anonymity • Protection of the rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, and autonomy of the subjects of their research.

34. Ethics in Sociological Research The code is concerned with maximizing the benefits of sociology to society and minimizing the harm that sociological work might create. Several eminent social scientists have been criticized for conducting research that many scientists consider unethical. Subjects were placed in stressful situations without being informed of the true nature of the experiment: Milgram, Humphreys

35. How Research and Theory Work Together • Neither Research nor Theory can Stand Alone • Theories Must Be Tested • Findings Must be Explained with Theory