Chapter 12 Motivation & Work

1. Chapter 12 Motivation & Work • Monday, Feb 6 – 455 – 462 • Tuesday, Feb 7 – 463 - 471 • Wednesday, Feb 8 - 471 - 481 • Thursday, Feb 9 – PLC day – in class essay • Friday, Feb 10 – 481 - 487 • Monday, Feb 13 – 487 - 496 • Tuesday, Feb 14 – Ch 12 Quiz/Cards/St G. • Wednesday, Feb 15 - Desk Mat due

2. Motivation (455) • a need/desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal • with motivation there is • nature - physiological PUSH • nurture - cognitive and cultural PULL. • 4 motives - hunger, sex, belonging and achievement

3. Motivational Concepts (456) • 1. Instinct Theory (Evolutionary Perspective) • 2. Drive Reduction Theory • 3. Arousal Theory • 4. Maslow's Theory

4. Instincts & Evolutionary Psych (456) • INSTINCT - complex behavior that has a fixed pattern throughout a species and is unlearned • ex. infant rooting • Instinct theory fails to explain human motives but it supports the assumption that genes predispose species-typical behavior.

5. Drives & Incentives Theory (457) • a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (called a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need • The physiological aim of drive-reduction is HOMEOSTASIS - maintaining a steady, internal state (ie - level blood sugar) • Drives PUSH (hunger) • Incentives PULL (smell of food)

6. Optimum Arousal (457) • Even if we have all our biological needs satisfied, we are still driven to experience stimulation • Rather than reducing a physical need or tension state, some motivated behaviors increase arousal • Ex. the well-fed monkey explores his surroundings because of curiosity - not the need for food.

7. A Hierarchy of Motives - MASLOW (458)

8. HUNGER (459) • Ancel Keys (1950) - fed subjects 1/2 their normal food for 6 months • physically their weights dropped 25% but then stabilized • listless/ energy conserving • -basal metabolic rates drop 29% • psychologically - food obsessed/ lost interest in sex, social things

9. Physiology of Hunger (460) • Washburn and Canon (1912) Washburn swallows a balloon - inflated, the balloon transmitted his stomach contractions to a recording device. Washburn pressed a key each time he felt hungry. When he recorded feeling hungry his stomach was contracting.

10. Hunger • Ghrelin - hormone produced by an empty stomach • Tsang (1938) - removes a rat's stomach - the rat still eats!

11. Body Chemistry and the Brain (461) • the body maintains a blood sugar glucose level • increases in insulin hormone diminish blood glucose • decreases in blood glucose increases hunger

12. Body Chemistry and the Brain (461) • the hypothalamus is the brain centre for hunger • the lateral (side) hypothalamus produces the hormone orexin which triggers hunger • the ventromedial (lower middle) hypothalamusdepresses hunger. If you stimulate the ventromedial, the animal will stop eating - if you destroy it the animal will eat and eat.

13. Hunger Hormones • the hypothalamus monitors LEPTIN - a protein produced by bloated fat cells. • As leptin rises the brain curbs eating and increases activity. • PYY - a digestive hormone that suppresses appetite

14. Body Chemistry and the Brain (462) • Set Point - body's stable weight point influenced by heredity. Set point can rise over time with slow, sustained changes in body weight. • Basal Metabolic Rate - body's rate of energy expenditure in maintaining basic body functions when the body is at rest.

15. Psychology of Hunger (463) • Rozin (1998) - amnesia patients will eat 20 minutes after a meal

16. Taste Preference: Biology or Culture? (463) • carbs increase our serotonin and calms us • sweet and salty preferences are universal and genetic • food aversions are learned • food choice is cultural - beef v. dog • ancestral adaptation for disliking novel foods • ancestral adaptation for liking spicy food • pregnancy adaptation for food aversion, especially in the 10th week when embryo is most vulnerable

17. Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa (464) • disorder where person is significantly below normal body weight yet still feels fat and obsessively diets/exercises • usually females

18. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa (464) • overeating followed by purging by vomiting, laxative use, fasting - followed by depression • eat ---- purge ------ depression cycle

19. Sexual Motivation (467) • Sex is a physiologically based motive that is also affected by learning and values. • Sexual motivation enables procreation.

20. Describing Sexual Behavior (468) • Kinsey (1948 and 1953) • interviews 18,000 people on sex and finds a wide range of "normal" sex behaviors and drives • criticized for leading questions and non-random sampling (too urban/white)

21. Describing Sexual Behavior (468) • Dr. Joyce Brothers (1990) • finds 2/3 married men and 1/2 married women have affairs. • Dr. Joyce Brothers on the Johnny Carson show http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEb9DApqEaE • Smith (1998) • 84% of married people are faithful

22. Physiology of Sex (468) • Sexual arousal depends on internal and external stimuli

23. 4-Stage Sexual Response Cycle (469) • Masters and Johnson (1966) monitor sex cycles of volunteers having sex in a lab • Stage 1 - Excitement Phase - genital area engorges with blood - penis becomes erect and vagina expands and lubricates • Stage 2 - Plateau Phase - excitement peaks - breathing, pulse, blood pressure increases - increased secretions of penis and vagina

24. 4-Stage Sexual Response Cycle • Stage 3 - Orgasm Phase - muscle contractions all over body - increase in breathing, pulse, blood pressure - woman's orgasm helps propel semen from the penis and positions the uterus to receive the sperm - Man ejaculates sperm • Stage 4 - Resolution Phase - after orgasm body returns to an unaroused state - male enters a refractory period (minutes or days) during which he is incapable of another orgasm. Most female refractory periods are shorter than the male’s.

25. Sexual Disorders (469) • inability to complete sexual cycle • impairment of sexual function • motivation problems • premature ejaculation • erectile disorders • orgasmic disorders • Sexual disorders are treatable with therapy

26. Hormones and Sexual Behavior (469) Sex hormones 1. direct the development of male and female sex characteristics 2. activate sexual behavior

27. Hormones and Sexual Behavior • In most mammals, sex is synchronized with fertility. The female becomes sexually receptive ("in heat") when the hormone estrogen peaks at ovulation. • Male testosterone is more constant. • Humans - at ovulation, sex desire is slightly higher. If a woman's testosterone levels go down (ie. after removal of an ovary) her sexual desire will lessen.

28. Hormones and Sexual Behavior • With men it is more difficult to manipulate sex desire by changing testosterone. • Castration will cause a loss of sex desire. • Depo-Provera is a drug that reduces testosterone - sex offenders' drug • Testosterone can rise in response to social stimulation • Men will have a lessening desire in sex as they age

29. Hypothalamus and Sex • Hormones influence sexual arousal via the hypothalamus • stimulating the hypothalamus activates sexual behavior

30. Psychology of Sex (471) • Hormones and psychological stimuli are both essential to hunger and sexuality • External Stimuli • both M and W respond to erotic material and both found explicit sex tapes most arousing • with repeated exposure the sexual response habituates

31. Adverse Effects of Explicit Material? • false idea that women enjoy coerced sex • increases male willingness to hurt women • the sexually-ideal movie stars cause us to devalue ourselves and our partners

32. Imagined Stimuli • Sexual motivation is from our physiology and our environment and stimuli in our imaginations. • Dreams - genital arousal accompanies all types of dreams, even though most dreams have no sexual content. Dreams also have sexual content that can trigger physical sexual arousal. • Fantasies while awake - men fantasize about sex more often than W and more physically than romantically. Fantasies do not mean you have sexual problems.

33. Adolescent Sexuality (472) • Culture effects attitudes to premarital sex and non-marital child bearing (see figure 12.8) - premarital sex is higher in Western than in Asian countries • Time changes attitudes and behaviors.

34. Teen Pregnancy (473) • Abstinence - 100% effective • Contraceptives - low rate of use by teens

35. Teen Pregnancy (473) Low rate of contraceptives/High rate of pregnancy WHY? 1. ignorance of menstrual cycle and contraception 2. over-estimating peer's sexual activity 3. guilt - therefore you don't plan to use contraception 4. lack of information about contraceptives 5. alcohol/drug use impairs judgment and inhibition 6. media doesn't show contraception use or STDs 7. teen invincibility fable

36. Teens Who Delay Sex (474) 1. higher IQ - more consequence oriented 2. religious 3. participate in service learning programs (ex. peer tutor)

37. Sexual Orientation (475) Gay and Lesbian: • recall play preferences like those of the opposite sex • aware of same-sex attraction during puberty • think of themselves as homosexual by early 20's

38. Sexual Orientation (475) • Most psychologists now say that homosexuality is neither willfully chosen or willfully changed • Women's orientation is less strongly felt and is more fluid - "erotic plastisity" • Gay and Lesbians have higher rates of depression and suicide but not other disorders • in 1973 homosexuality was deleted from the DSM as a disorder

39. Understanding Sexual Orientation (477) • See questions at top of 477 - all are “no” • Kinsey found no environmental or psychological differences between hetero and homosexuals except for more nonconformity among homosexuals

40. Understanding Sexual Orientation (477) Statistics show there are more homosexuals: • in large cities • who are eminent people • men with many older brothers - there may be a maternal antibody that is produced to protect the mother against foreign substances produced by male fetuses. (women with older sisters or women with twin brothers don't seem to be similarly effected)

41. Understanding Sexual Orientation (477) • There is a theory that you are more likely to by gay if segregated during your puberty years. However, in cultures with heavy segregation and expected homosexuality there is no more homosexuality than in other cultures. • The bottom line seems to be that we do not know of any environmental causes.

42. The Brain and Sexual Orientation (478) • Levay found differences in the hypothalamus of deceased gay people that he believes influence sexual orientation. He found the same brain differences in homosexual sheep. • Allan and Gorski discovered a section of the corpus callosum that is 1/3 larger in homosexual men. • The question becomes when does the brain difference develop? - in the fetus? in the infant? after experiences? • Breedlove (1997) In animals and humans, brain structures vary with experience - including sexual experience.

43. Genes and Sexual Orientation (487) • 52% of identical twins share sexual orientation as opposed to 22% of fraternal twins - so genes have an influence but do not tell the whole story. • With a single genetic transplant, scientists can now cause male fruit flies to display homosexual behavior. (Zhang and Odenwald 1995)

44. Prenatal Hormones and Sexual Orientation (478) • Gunter Dorner (1976) a fetal rat's exposure to male hormones inverted its sexual behavior toward rats of the other sex. • Money (1987) female sheep whose mothers were infected with testosterone show homosexual behavior • The fingerprint is formed by the 16th week of pregnancy. Gay men have fingerprints typical to hetero women.

45. Prenatal Hormones and Sexual Orientation (478) • Fetuses (M or F) exposed to the hormone levels typically experienced by female fetuses during the 2nd to 5th month of pregnancy seem to be predisposed to be attracted to males. • Lesbians develop a more male-like cochlea and hearing system.

46. Sex and Human Values (481) • Baumrind (1982) - adolescents who receive value-free sex ed interpret it to mean that adults are neutral about adolescent sexual activity. • Furstenberg (1985) - teens who have formal sex ed are no more likely to engage in premarital sex than those who do not get sex ed

47. Maintaining Relationships (484) • Jean Twenge (2001) - after giving subjects a personality test she tells 1/2 that they are the type likely to end up alone or/and they were not chosen by other subjects for a group (both false). The other 1/2 were told the opposite. The "loser" group engaged in self-defeating behaviors, under-performed on aptitude tests and were antisocial/aggressive.

48. The Need to Belong (483) Aristotle ------ social animals Alfred Adler ----- urge to community

49. Belonging - Aiding Survival (483) • for our ancestors belonging = survival and reproducing • groups hunt and forage better

50. Acting to Increase Social Acceptance (483) • as belonging increases self esteem increases • we conform to avoid rejection and isolation and to increase belonging • need to belong is positive (teams) and negative (gangs)