Gender and Sport

1. Gender and Sport SEP 271 Dr. Jack C. Watson

2. Topical Outline • Definitions • Male Privilege • Sources of Inequity • Social Barriers • Title IX • Positions of authority • Topical Review

3. Definitions of Sex and Gender • Sex: a biological characteristic • Gender: an ongoing cultural process that socially constructs differences between men and women (i.e., social expectations)

4. Male Privilege • More wealth, power and prestige • Role-models are mostly male • Western society is patriarchal • Women are seen as child raisers and homemakers • Sport perpetuates this belief, as it is “for men” • Women in sport faced “social isolation” • Women have been put down for sport participation • Loss of feminine attributes • Were expected to be cheerleaders not players • Bicycling was the first sport to change this • Colleges started offering P.E. to women • Title IX has changed the outward appearance of this

5. Sources of Gender Inequality in Sport • Society perpetuates this problem • Parental Influences: • Toys, treatment, acceptable behavior • Schools: • Girls are less visible • Ask boys better questions, give more feedback and time • Course expectations • Genders of teachers and administrators

6. Sources of Gender Inequality in Sport • Society perpetuates this problem • Mass Media: • Reporting of women’s sports (type and place) • Airtime given to women’s sports • Endorsements • female athletes made feminine, given less money, sponcer different products • Colleges/Universities • Names given to female teams

7. Social Barriers • Myths about biological and physical weakness • Women are more likely to get hurt (no truth to this) • Women are psychologically weak (no truth to this) • Sports masculinize women (cultural defined standard) • Sports are for lesbians (no truth to this) • Unequal opportunities • Women can compete with men in many sports • Unequal access to authority • Unequal return/pay • Boys control the power

8. Title IX • Before 1970’s, many boys only teams • Before mid 1970’s, nine states prohibited interschool sports for females • Those with teams often had restricted schedules • Prior to 1970’s, female collegiate programs were 15% of aths, and 2% of the budget • AIAW (assoc for intercollegiate athletics for women: - 1982)

9. What is Title IX? • Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972. • “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance”. • Views about Title IX • Grove City College v. Bell (1984): Narrowed definition • Civil Rights Restoration Act (1988)

10. Title IX • Before the passage of Title IX 16,000 college female athletes participated on varsity teams. They did this with no scholarship assistance, and little financial backing for coaches, uniforms, travel, locker rooms, medical assistance, or athletic training. • Thanks to Title IX, the number of girls that participate in sports have increased to over 2.7 million compared to the 294 thousand in 1971. For the most part, they now have the backing and support needed.

11. Interpreting Title IX • Three part test: • Substantial Proportionality: • Proportion of female athletes equal to the proportion of female undergraduates • History of Continuing Practice: • Demonstration of a history of movement towards proportionality • Effectively Accommodating Interests and Abilities • Schools meets interest and ability levels of students. • Proportionality is not important

12. Effects of Title IX • Colleges and Universities • Approximately 60% of athletes are men • 59% of scholarships go to me • Women receiving better money and facilities • Women’s sports now facing some of the same bad practices as men’s sports. • Universities dropping minor programs • net # of men’s and women’s teams increasing • More men coaching women’s teams • Less women in positions of authority

13. Indicators of Progress Toward Equal Educational Opportunity Since Title IX In 1994, 63% of female high school graduates ages 16-24 were enrolled in college, compared to 43% in 1973. In 1994, 27% of both men and women had earned a bachelor’s degree. In 1971, 18% of women and 26% of men had completed four or more years of college.

14. Graduate and Professional degrees • In 1994, women received 38% of medical degrees. When Title IX was enacted in 1972, only 9% of medical degrees went to women. • In 1994 women earned 38% of dental degrees, whereas in 1972 they earned only 1% of them. • In 1994 women accounted for 43% of law degrees, up from 7% in 1972. • In 1993, 44% of all doctoral degrees awarded to U.S. citizens went to women, up from only 25% in 1977.

15. Women now make up the majority of students in America’s colleges and universities in addition to making up the majority of those receiving master’s degrees. Women are also entering business and law schools in record numbers. Indeed, the United States stands alone and is a world leader in opening the doors of higher education to women.

16. While women initially brought all the suits against universities, men now are filing Title IX discrimination suits. Most of these have been unsuccessful, but legal experts say a few pending cases might prevail. The National Wrestling Coaches Association, along with several former wrestlers from three colleges, including Marquette University, filed a federal Title IX lawsuit against the Department of Education in January of 2002 in Washington D.C. The lawsuit alleges that Title IX, a 1972 statute designed to further athletic opportunities for women, discriminates against men in lower-tier sports and has led to the elimination of hundreds of men's teams across the country and athletic opportunities for male students. Colleges must adhere to Title IX or risk losing federal funding. Title IX has created controversy

17. Is Title IX Punishing Males? • At a young age, there are more than 2 million boys participating in Little League baseball, where as in Little League softball fewer than half of the girls participate, not because they can’t but because girls don’t want to. • Nearly four times as many males than females take part in intramural sports where anybody who wants to play can, signifying a greater interest in sports for males than females. • In 1995, at Brown University, men’s teams were “competing for available positions” where as the women’s teams had 93 open spots on their rosters” • While women’s teams are often begging for participants and offering full scholarships to female athletes on crew teams, men’s teams are forced to turn away walk-ons who are only playing their sport for the love of the game.

18. Elimination statistics of men's sports teams • 12% drop in men’s opportunities for sports from 1985-1997 • Colleges have dropped 350+ men’s teams since 1992 • During the mid 1990’s - 20,800 men’s position were eliminated • In the NCAA there are 19 sport programs for men; while women now have 26 sport programs

19. Positions of Authority and Status in Female Sports • Often go to men • “old boys network” • Perceived as more qualified • Men are paid more • For coaching men’s or women’s teams • Trends may be reversing • Women are gaining more power. • Women have less high level sport opportunities (pros and Olympics)

20. Topical Review • Definitions • Male Privilege • Sources of Inequity • Social Barriers • Title IX • Positions of authority