American Government Chapters 9 & 10 Outline

American Government Chapters 9 & 10 Outline

Chapter 9 Overview: Political Parties A political party exists in three arenas: among the voters who psychologically identify with it, as a grassroots organization staffed and led by activists, and as a group of elected officials who seek to act upon its ideals. This chapter studies the party primarily as an organization which takes various forms at the local level. These include the political machine, the ideological party, the solidary group, the sponsored party, and the personal following

National parties are weak coalitions of these local forums. As organizations that influence the political systems, parties are becoming even weaker. Voters no longer strongly identify with one of the major parties. The spread of the direct primary has made it harder for parties to control who is nominated for elective office, thus making it harder for the parties to influence the behavior of officeholders they once elected.

Delegate selection rules, especially in the Democratic Party, have contributed to shifting the center of power away from officeholders and party regulars, and toward the parties' more ideological wings. Minor parties have arisen from time to time, but the only ones that have affected the outcome of presidential elections have been those that represented a splinter group within one of the major parties. An example of such a party is the Bull Moose Progressives. The two-party system is maintained, and minor parties are discouraged, by an election system of winner-take-all, plurality elections. This arrangement makes voters fear that voting for a minor party will "waste" their vote. Meanwhile, the primary system makes it possible for minor parties to wield influence through the major parties.

Chapter 10 Overview: Elections & Campaigns Political campaigns have become increasingly personalized, with little or no connection to formal party organizations. Party influence has decayed as a result of the widespread adoption of the direct primary, the increasing influence of the media, and the workings of campaign finance law. Today, candidates face the problem of creating a temporary organization that can raise money from large numbers of small donors and mobilize enthusiastic supporters; they must win the nomination by appealing to the party faithful, while not losing their ability to recruit moderate and independent voters in the general election. Election outcomes can have important effects on public policy, especially during critical or "realigning" elections. On these occasions, new voters are coming into the electorate in large numbers, old party loyalties are weakening, or a major issue is splitting the majority party.

I. Parties—in the United States and abroad • A. Decentralization • 1. A party is a group that seeks to elect candidates to public office by supplying them with a label (party identification) by which they are known to the electorate. • 2. Arenas of politics in which parties exist: • a) Label in the minds of the voters • b) Organization recruiting and campaigning for candidates • Set of leaders organizing and trying to control the legislative and executive branches • 3. U.S. parties have become weaker in all three arenas. • a) As label, because there are more independents and more split-ticket voting • b) As set of leaders, though, parties are still somewhat strong. • c) As organizations, parties have become weaker since 1960s

B. Reasons American and European parties are different 1. European parties are disciplined gatekeepers, to which voters are very loyal, though this has been declining recently. 2. Federal system decentralizes power in United States. a) Early in U.S. history, the most important government decisions were made by the state and local governments, and this is where most of the political jobs were. b) National parties in those times were coalitions of local parties. c) As political power became more centralized, parties became even more decentralized and weaker. 3. Parties closely regulated by state and federal laws, which weaken them 4. Candidates are now chosen through primaries, not by party leaders. 5. President elected separately from Congress, and presidential appointees are drawn from many sources.

EU member states by the European parliamentary affiliations of their leaders, as of 22 Nov 2005.

II. The rise and decline of the political party A. The Founding (to 1820s) 1. Founders disliked parties, viewing them as factions. 2. For parties to be acceptable, people had to be able to distinguish between policy disputes and challenges to the legitimacy of government. 3. Emergence of Republicans, Federalists: Jefferson vs. Hamilton a. Loose caucuses of political notables b. Republicans' success (Jefferson, Madison, Monroe) and Federalists' demise c. Reflection of the newness of parties is seen in the weakness of this system 4. No representation of homogeneous economic interests-parties were always heterogeneous coalitions

B. The Jacksonians (to Civil War) 1. Political participation became a mass phenomenon. a. More voters to be reached-by 1832, presidential electors selected by popular vote in most states b. Party built from bottom, up c. Abandonment of presidential caucuses composed of Congress members d. Beginning of national party conventions, allowing local control C. The Civil War and sectionalism (to 1930s) 1. Jacksonian system unable to survive slavery and sectionalism 2. New Republicans became dominant because of... a. Civil War-Republicans relied on Union pride b. Bryan's alienation of northern Democrats in 1896, deepening sectionalism 3. Most states were dominated by one party. a. Factions emerge in each party. b. Republicans with professional politicians (Old Guard) and progressives (mugwumps) c. Progressives initially shifted between parties to gain power, but then began attacking partisanship when the Republicans became dominant. 4. See the Politically Speaking box, The Donkey and the Elephant

D. The era of reform (beginning in the 1900s, but chiefly since the New Deal) 1. Progressives pushed measures to curtail parties' power and influence. a. Primary elections favored, to replace nominating conventions b. Nonpartisan elections at city and (sometimes) state level c. No party-business alliances, on the grounds that they were corrupting d. Strict voter registration requirements in order to reduce fraud e. Civil service reform in order to eliminate patronage f. Initiative and referendum so that citizens could vote directly on proposed legislation 2. Effects a. Reduced the worst forms of political corruption b. Weakened all political parties - parties became less able to hold officeholders accountable or to coordinate across the branches of government

E. Party realignments 1. Critical or realigning periods: periods when a sharp, lasting shift occurs in the popular coalition supporting one or both parties a) Issues that separate the parties change, so the kinds of voters supporting each party change b) Shift may occur at the time of the election or just after 2. Five realignments so far a) 1800 (Jeffersonian Republicans defeated Federalists) b) 1828 (Jacksonian Democrats came to power) c) 1860 (Whig party collapsed; Republicans came to power) d) 1896 (Republicans defeated William Jennings Bryan) e) 1932 (Democrats came to office under FDR)

3. Two kinds of realignments a) A major party is defeated so badly that it disappears and a new party emerges b) Two existing parties continue but voters shift their loyalty from one to another 4. Clearest cases of realignment: 1860, 1896, 1932 a) 1860: slavery issue fixed new loyalties in the popular mind b) 1896: economic issues shifted loyalties to East vs. West, city vs. farm split c) 1932: economic depression triggered new coalition for Democrats 5. 1980: a new realignment? a) Reagan won in 1980 because he was not Jimmy Carter b) Could not have been a traditional realignment because Congress was left in the hands of the Democrats

6. Major shift that has occurred: shift in presidential voting patterns in the South a) 1972-2004: South has been more Republican than nation as a whole b) If continues, will constitute a major regional realignment F. Party decline 1. Evidence that parties are declining, not realigning 2. Proportion of people identifying with a party declined between 1960 and 1980 3. Proportion of those voting a split ticket increased a) was almost unheard of in the 19th century, because voters were given ballots by the parties b) became more common with the adoption of the office-bloc ballot (listing candidates by office instead of party)

III. The national party structure today A. Parties similar on paper 1. National convention has ultimate power; meets every four years to nominate the presidential candidate 2. National committee is composed of delegates from states; manages affairs between conventions 3. Congressional campaign committees support the party's congressional candidates. 4. National chair manages daily work. B. Party structure diverged in late 1960s and early 1970s. 1. RNC moved to bureaucratic structure a) Became a well-financed party devoted to electing its candidates, especially to Congress b) Beginning in 1980s, RNC used computerized mailing lists to raise money c) Money was used to provide services to candidates d) RNC effectively created a national firm of political consultants 2. Democrats moved to factionalized structure and redistributed power a) Democrats lost 5 out of 6 presidential elections between 1968 and 1988 b) By the 1990s, DNC had learned from the RNC: adopted the same techniques, with some success. 3. DNC and RNC send money to state parties, to sidestep federal spending limits (soft money)

C. National conventions 1. National committee sets time and place; issues a "call" setting the number of delegates for each state and the rules for their selection 2. Formulas are used to allocate delegates a. Democrats' formula shifts delegates away from the South, to the North and West. b. Republicans' formula shifts delegates away from the East, to the South and Southwest. c. Result: Democrats move left, Republicans right 3. Democrat formula rewards large states; while the Republican formula rewards loyal states. 4. Democrats set new rules. a. In 1970s, rules were changed to weaken local party leaders and increase the proportions of women, youth, blacks, and Native Americans attending the convention. b. Hunt Commission in 1981 increased the influence of elected officials and made the convention more deliberative.

5. Consequence of reforms: parties represent different sets of upper-middleclass voters a. Republicans represent traditional middle class-more conservative b. Democrats represent more leftist wing of the liberal middle class 6. To become more competitive, Democrats adopted additional rule changes: a. In 1988, the number of superdelegates was increased while the status of some special interest caucuses was decreased. b. In 1992, three rules were set: (1) Winner-reward system of delegate distribution banned- this had previously given the winner of primaries and caucuses extra delegates (2) Proportional representation implemented (3) States that violated the rules were penalized with the loss of convention delegates. 7. Conventions today only ratify choices made in primary season. http://msnbc.msn.com/id/4440378

IV. State and local parties A. State-level structure 1. State central committee 2. County committees 3. Various local committees 4. Distribution of power varies with the state, as different incentives are at work B. The machine 1. Definition: a party organization that recruits members via tangible incentives (money, jobs, political favors) 2. High degree of leadership control over member activity 3. Abuses were extensive a. Gradually controlled by reforms-voter registration, civil service, Hatch Act (1939) b. Machines continued until voter demographics and federal programs changed, decreasing the need for the parties' resources. 4. Machines were both self-serving and public-regarding. 5. New machine: uses money to knit together many politicians, though money comes from campaign contributions, not from patronage and contracts a) New machines are a blend of the old machine (regarding campaign finance) and today’s ideological party traits (regarding issues) b) Example: Waxman-Berman organization in west Los Angeles

C. Ideological parties-extreme opposite to machine 1. Principle is more important than winning election, so ideological parties are contentious and factionalized 2. Usually outside Democratic and Republican parties-"third parties" 3. Currently are generally focused social movements, which advance specific demands 4. Political machine was once the “farm club” of the national party, but today’s social movements perform that function a) Factionalism is therefore more intense b)Party leaders have less freedom b. Party leaders have less freedom. D. Solidary groups 1. Members are motivated by solidary incentives (enjoying the Game; companionship). 2. Advantage: neither corrupt nor inflexible 3. Disadvantage: not very hard working

E. Sponsored parties 1. Created or sustained by another organization 2. Example: Detroit Democrats were developed and led by the United Auto Workers (UAW) union 3. Not very common in U.S. F. Personal following 1. Requires an appealing personality, an extensive network, name recognition, and, money 2. Examples: Kennedys (MA), Talmadges (GA), Longs (LA), Byrds (V A)

V. The two-party system A. Rarity among nations today B. Evenly balanced nationally, but not locally C. Why has the two-party system endured for so long? 1. Electoral system—winner-take-all and plurality system limit the number of parties 2. Opinions of voters—two broad coalitions work, although there may be times of bitter dissent 3. State laws have made it very difficult for third parties to get on the ballot

VI. Minor parties ("third parties") A. Ideological parties-comprehensive, radical view; most enduring Examples: Socialist, Communist, Libertarian B. One-issue parties-address one concern, avoid others Examples: Free Soil, Know-Nothing, Prohibition C. Economic protest parties-regional, protest economic conditions Examples: Greenback, Populist D. Factional parties-from split in a major party, usually over the party's presidential nominee Examples: Bull Moose, Henry Wallace, American Independent Party

E. Surprising that more social movements (e.g., the civil rights movement, anti-war movement) have not produced their own parties 1. There is only a slim chance that they will be successful 2. The major parties accommodate the movements via direct primaries and national party convention F. Impact of minor parties on American politics hard to judge 1. Conventional wisdom holds that minor parties develop ideas that the major parties adopt 2. Factional parties have had probably the greatest influence on public policy

A. Two contrary forces 1. Party’s desire to win the presidency motivates it to seek an appealing candidate 2. Desire to keep dissidents in party forces a compromise with more extreme views B. Are the delegates representative of the voters? 1. Democratic delegates much more liberal 2. Republican delegates much more conservative 3. Outcome cannot be attributed to quota rules for delegate selection, alone—women, youth, minorities have greater diversity of opinions than do the delegates

C. Who votes in primaries? 1. Primaries now more numerous and more decisive. a. Stevenson (1952) and Humphrey (1968) won the presidential nomination without entering any primaries b. By 1992: forty primaries and twenty caucuses (some states with both) 2. Yet studies find little ideological difference between primary voters and rank-and-file party voters 3. Caucus: meeting of party followers at which delegates are picked a. Only the most dedicated partisans attend b. Often choose most ideological candidate: Jackson, Robertson in 1988

D. Who are the new delegates? 1. Today's delegates are issue-oriented activists. 2. Advantages of this new system: a. Increased opportunities for activists within the two major parties b. Decreased probability of their bolting the major parties 3. Disadvantage: these delegates may nominate presidential candidates unacceptable to voters or even to the party's rank and file http://www.boston.com/news/politics/conventions/delegates/

VIII. Parties versus voters A. Democrats: since 1968, have won more congressional elections than presidential contests 1. Presidential candidates are out of step with average voters on social and taxation issues 2. So are Democratic delegates to the nominating convention, and there’s a connection between the delegates’ and the candidate’s positions B. Republicans had same problem with Goldwater (1964). C. Rank-and-file Democrats and Republicans differ on many political issues, butthe differences are usually small. 1. Delegates from the two major parties differ widely on these same issues. 2. So, the candidate needs to share views with the average citizen or campaign on issues where delegates and voters agree. 3. Problems arise, though, because candidates must often play to the ideological extremes to win delegate support.

Q.5 When deciding which party to vote for, which ONE of the following issues has the greatest influence on your decision (2000): <>

Chapter 10 • Campaigns, then and now • A. Then: Campaigns for the nomination were nearly nonexistent. • 1. Nineteenth century: congressional members from party caucus picked candidate • 2. After nominating conventions replaced caucuses, local party leaders or bosses selected candidate.

B. Now: Candidates must orchestrate a highly structured campaign • 1. Run by large staff: • a) Media consultants create advertisements and buy air time from media outlets. • b) Direct-mail firms design and produce promotional materials for fund-raising purposes. • c) Polling firms survey voters on their attitudes toward issues and candidates and run focus groups. • d) Political technology firms supply services such as web site design, online advertising, online fund-raising, and voter-targeting. • 2. To pay for this help, candidates must raise and spend large sums of money. • a)Candidates for the 435 House races spent $1 billion. • b)Candidates for Senate races spent $400 million • c)Candidates for president spent $1.75 billion. • d)The amount spent by presidential candidates has exploded since 1976, with most of the money going to fund various forms of media, including TV, radio, newspapers, yard signs and the Internet. • 3 Largely based on media advertising • a) Large amount of money spent on media advertising • b) Advertisements appeal largely to emotions, such as fear, patriotism, or community pride.

C. Are campaigns better or worse? 1. Candidates use polling data to determine voter opinions, positions 2. In 2008, both presidential campaigns made extensive use of micro-targeting software to reach sets of voters. 3. Parties emphasize get-out-the-vote activities 4. Candidates rely heavily on advice of political consultants 5 “Campaigning” has become synonymous with “fund-raising”

D. Campaigns, in the United States and abroad 1. Differences in how candidates secure party nominations a) In America, the nomination is determined by individual effort b) In Europe, the nomination is determined by party leaders 2. Differences in how nominees secure electoral victory a) In America, largest role of parties is to provide individual candidates with label for voters b) In Europe, elections are largely contests between parties, not between individual candidates

II. Presidential versus congressional campaigns A. Differences 1. Most obvious difference is size: more voter participation in presidential campaign, so candidates must work harder and spend more 2. Presidential races are more competitive than House races 3. Lower turnout in off years means that candidates must appeal to more motivated and partisan voters 4. Members of Congress can do things for their constituents that the president cannot 5. Members of Congress can run as individuals, distancing themselves from “the mess in Washington”; presidents cannot a) However, members of Congress may feel voter anger about national affairs, particularly the economy b) Presidential coattails do not have the value they once had; some scholars argue they don’t exist anymore 6. Congressional elections are now substantially independent of the presidential election

B. Running for President 1. Getting mentioned a) David Broder: “The Great Mentioner” b) Let it be known to reporters “off the record” that you are considering running c) Travel around the country making speeches d) Have a famous name (John Glenn) e) Be identified with a major piece of legislation f) Be the governor of a big state 2. Setting aside time to run a) Reagan: six years; Mondale: four years b) May have to resign from office first (Dole in 1996), though many campaign while in office

3. Money a) Individuals can give $2,000, PACs can give $5,000 in each election to each candidate. b) Candidates must raise $5,000 in twenty states in individual contributions of $250 or less to qualify for federal matching grants to pay for primary campaigns. 4. Organization a) A large (paid) staff b) Volunteers c) Advisers on issues: position papers 5. Strategy and themes a) Incumbents defend their record; challengers attack incumbents. b) Setting the tone (positive or negative) c) Developing a theme: “trust,” “confidence,” “compassionate conservatism,” etc. d) Judging the timing (early momentum vs. reserving resources for later) e) Choosing a target voter: who’s the audience? Who will change their vote?

C. Getting elected to Congress 1. Incumbents with extraordinary advantage―and no term limits in Congress 2. Each state has two senators; number of House representatives based on state population, as determined by the census 3. House members are now elected from single-member districts. 4. District boundaries can affect election outcomes; two enduring problems have characterized congressional electoral politics a) Malapportionment: districts have very different populations, so the votes in the less-populated district “weigh more” than do those in the more-populated district b) Gerrymandering: boundaries are drawn to favor one party rather than another, resulting in odd-shaped districts 5. Problems associated with House elections: a) Total size of the House, which Congress has decided b) Allocating House seats among the states (states gain and lose seats following the census) c) Determining the size of congressional districts within the states, which states have decided in keeping with stringent Supreme Court rulings

D. Winning the congressional primary • 1. Must gather voter signatures to appear on the ballot for a primary election • 2. Win party nomination by winning the primary election—parties have limited influence over these outcomes • 3. Run in the general election—incumbents almost always win: sophomore surge due to use of office to run a strong personal campaign • 4. Personalized campaigns offer members independence from party in Congress

E. Staying in Office • 1. How members get elected has two consequences • a) Legislators are closely tied to local concerns • b) Party leaders have little influence in the Congress because they can’t influence electoral outcomes • 2. Affects how policy is made: the members gear her/his office to help individual constituents, while committees secure pork for the district • 3. Members must decide how much to be delegates (do what district wants) versus trustees (use their independent judgment)

III. Primary versus general campaigns A. Primary and general campaigns 1. What works in a primary election may not work in a general election, and vice versa. a. Different voters, workers, media attention in different types of elections b. Must mobilize activists who will give money, volunteer, and attend caucuses c. Activists are more ideologically stringent than are the voters at large. 2. Iowa caucuses a. Held in January of presidential election year b. Candidates must do well or be disadvantaged in media attention, contributor interest c. Winners tend to be most liberal Democrat, most conservative Republican 3. The balancing act a. Being conservative enough or liberal enough to get nominated b. Then move to center to get elected c. Apparent contradictions can alienate voters from all candidates. 4. Even primary voters can be more extreme ideologically than average voters; example, Kerry took more extreme positions in 2004 primaries, backed away from them after winning Democratic nomination

B. Two kinds of campaign issues 1. Position issues: rival candidates have opposing views, voters are divided and a partisan realignment may result a. Position issues in 2000: social security, defense, public school choice systems. b. Great party realignments (e.g., 1890s, 1960s) have been based on position issues 2. Valence issues: candidate supports the public, widely held view a. Dominated the 1996 election b. Increasingly important because television leads to a reliance on popular symbols and admired images Evening News Viewership, All Networks November 1980 to November 2004

C. Television, debates, and direct mail 1. Paid advertising (spots) a. Little known candidates can increase name recognition through the frequent use of spots (example, Carter in 1976). b. Probably less effect on general than primary elections because most voters rely on many sources for information 2. News broadcasts ("visuals") a. Cost little b. May have greater credibility with voters c. Rely on having television camera crew around d. May actually be less informative than spots and therefore make less of an impression 3. Debates a. Usually an advantage only to the challenger b. Reagan in 1980: reassured voters by his performance c. 2004 primary debates : not clear who did better, and are thought to have little impact on voters

4. Risk of slips of the tongue on visuals and debates a. Forces candidates to rely on stock speeches-campaign themes and proven applause-getting lines b. Sell yourself as much or more than ideas 5. Ross Perot's campaign depended on television. a. CNN appearances b. Infomercials c. Televised debates with major party contenders 6. In 1996, major networks gave free time to “major” candidates- and denied it to minor third-party nominees 7. The Internet a. Makes possible direct-mail campaigns b. Allows candidates to address specific voters via direct mail c. Mailing to specific groups, so more specific views can be expressed d. 2004 Howard Dean campaign based in Internet appeals 8. The gap between running a campaign and running the government has been growing on: a. Party leaders had to worry about their candidates' reelection so campaigning and government linked b. Today's consultants work for different people in different elections-no participation in governing

IV. Money A. The sources of campaign money 1. Presidential primaries: part private, part public money a) Federal matching funds for all individuals’ donations of $250 or less b) Gives candidates an incentive to raise money from small donors c) Government also gives lump-sum grants to parties to cover convention costs 2. Presidential general elections: all public money up to a legal limit of major party candidates and part of the costs of minor party candidates if they receive 5 to 25 percent of the vote. (3. Congressional elections: mostly private money a) From individuals, political action committees, and political parties b) Most money comes from individual small donors ($100–$200 a person)

B. Campaign finance rules 1. 1972: Watergate and illegal donations from corporations, unions, and individuals catalyzed change 2. Brought about the 1974 federal campaign reform law and Federal Election Commission (FEC) 3. Reform law a) Set limit on individual donations ($1,000 per candidate per election) b) Reaffirmed ban on corporate and union donations… c) …but allowed them to raise money through PACs d) PAC requirements: (1) At least 50 voluntary members (2) Give to at least 5 federal candidates (3) Limited to giving $5,000 per election per candidate, or no more than $15,000 per year to any political party e) Primary and general election counted separately for donations

f) Public funding for presidential campaigns: (1) (1) Matching funds for presidential primary candidates, who meet fund-raising stipulations (2) Full funding for presidential general campaigns, for major party candidates (3) Candidates may decline public funding: in 2004, George W. Bush, John Kerry, and Howard Dean did not accept public funding and ran on money they had raised privately (4) In 2008, John McCain declined public financing for the primaries but accepted it for the general election. Barack Obama relied entirely on his own funds to support his campaign in the primaries and general election. (5) Partial funding available for minor party presidential candidates in the general campaign if they won at least 5 percent of the vote in the previous election. (In 2000, the Reform Party and Green Party candidates, Pat Buchanan and Ralph Nader, respectively, each received some funding; neither was eligible in 2004.) No minor party won more than 5 percent in either 2004 or 2008, so no one got public support.

4. 1973 reform produced two problems a) Independent expenditures: an organization or PAC can spend as much as it wishes on advertising, so long as it is not coordinated with a candidate’s campaign b) Soft money: unlimited amounts of money may be given to a political party, so long as a candidate is not named; this money can then be spent to help candidates with voting drives, etc. (2000 election, approximately half a billion dollars in soft money was spent)

C. A Second Campaign 1. Following 2000 election, desire to reform the 1974 law led to the Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act; three changes: a) Banned soft money contributions to national parties from corporations and unions after 2002 election b) Raised the limit on individual donations to $2,000 per candidate per election c) Sharply restricted independent expenditures―corporations, unions, trade associations, nonprofit organizations cannot use their own money for an advertisement referring to a candidate by name, 30 days before a primary and 60 days before a general election 2. Immediately challenged in court as restriction of free speech: Supreme Court upheld almost the entire law

D. New sources of money 1. 527 organizations: a new source of money under the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act a) Designed to permit the kind of soft money expenditures once made by political parties b) Can spend their money on politics so long as they do not coordinate with a candidate or lobby directly for that person 2. Democratic 527 organizations: a) The Media Fund b) America Coming Together c) America Votes (and many others) 3. Republican 527 organizations: a) Progress for America b) The Leadership Forum c) America for Job Security (and many others) 4. 2004: 527 organizations raised and spent over one-third of a billion dollars

American Government Chapters 9 & 10 Outline