Making A Living

1. Making A Living Subsistence and Economy

2. Cultural AdaptationA complex of ideas, activities, and technologies that enable people to survive and even thrive • Adaptation occurs when humans change the natural environment, and when the natural environment changes human biology • Ex: Moken people of Southeast Asia (off coast of Myanmar). Hunter/Gatherers of the Sea. Can see twice as clearly underwater as normal, dive up to 75 feet, and hold their breath for extended periods of time

3. The Adaptive RelationshipOrganisms and their Environments • Environments present certain possibilities and limitations that Organisms (including humans) must adapt to. This relationship is referred to as an… • Ecosystem: A system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the natural environment and all the organisms living within it.

4. The Adaptive RelationshipOrganisms and their Environments • Cultural Evolution: Culture change over time • Populations evolve when individual organisms within the population are born with certain genetic mutations that are better adapted to their environment, and which enable them to thrive and reproduce.

5. The Adaptive RelationshipOrganisms and their Environments • Cultures evolve when faced with environmental or other stressors. • Example issue: San bushmen culture must adapt to a changing world

6. The Adaptive RelationshipOrganisms and their Environments • Cultures evolve when faced with environmental or other stressors. • Convergent evolution: In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by different peoples with different ancestral cultures • Ex: Horses introduced to disparate Native American cultures (I.e. nomads like the Comanche, and horticulturalists like the Cheyenne), change both groups to warrior-type cultures based on horse-raiding.

7. The Adaptive RelationshipOrganisms and their Environments • Cultures evolve when faced with environmental or other stressors. • Parallel evolution: In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by people whose ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike. • Ex: Development of large-scale agriculture and food distribution networks in the early state cultures of Mesoamerica and Egypt due to shrinking resources and an abundance of people in the area needing those resources.

8. Modes of Subsistence • Food Foraging Societies • Hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plant foods • Food Producing Societies • Domestication of plants (cultivation) and animals (breeding/raising) • Industrial Societies • Machines and tools instead of human labor. Technological inventions utilizing steam, water, air, oil, electricity, and nuclear energy.

9. Food Foraging Societies • Hunting, Fishing and Gathering of wild plant food • i.e. “Hunter/Gatherers”

10. Food Foraging SocietiesCharacterized by… • Mobility • Small Group Size • Carrying capacity: The number of people that the available resources can support at a given level of food-getting techniques • Density of Social relations: The number and intensity of interactions among the members of a camp.

11. Food Foraging SocietiesCharacterized by… • Flexible Division of Labor by Gender:Meaning that men and women can take on each others’ tasks without any social stigmas (i.e. no one will make fun of them).

12. Food Foraging SocietiesCharacterized by… • Food Sharing Egalitarian Social Relations • Food is shared, not hoarded. Wealth (lots of food) is considered socially inappropriate. • Whoever finds food first, has first dibs. Afterward, everyone takes a share. • Since food foragers have no “rank” or hierarchies, there is no giving the “worst parts” of the food to people who would be considered “lower-ranking” like the Fore culture (cannibalism example) discussed in chapter 1.

13. Food Foraging Societies ~10,000 years ago in the fertile crescent (ancient Mesopotamia), we have something called the “Neolithic Transition”. This “New Stone Age” was characterized by a sudden boom in the adoption of agricultural instruments such as the plow, yoke and hoe, and the large-scale domestication of wild plants such as wheat, maize, rice, beans, potatoes, and squash, and animals like goats, sheep, pigs, and cattle. Leading some cultures to evolve into…

14. Food Producing Societies!!! • Domestication of plants (cultivation) and animals (breeding/raising) • Horticulture • Agriculture • Mixed Farming • Pastoralism • Intensive Agriculture

15. Food-Producing Societies Characterized by… • Horticulture • Cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes • Ex: Rice farming in Tanzania • Slash-and-burn cultivation (swidden farming): An extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes.

16. Food-Producing SocietiesCharacterized by… • Agriculture • The cultivation of food plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production. Involves using technologies other than hand tools, such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals.

17. Food-Producing SocietiesCharacterized by… • Mixed Farming • Crop growing and animal breeding

18. Food-Producing SocietiesCharacterized by… • Pastoralism • Breeding and managing large herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses, llamas, or camels. • Ex: Fulani group in Mali (sahara desert) (cattle herders) • Ex: The Sami (reindeer herders): • *Both of these are examples of Nomadic pastoralists

19. Food-Producing SocietiesCharacterized by… • Intensive Agriculture (Non-Industrial cities) • In support of towns/cities. Allowed cultures to specialize: Jobs such as blacksmith, musician, scribe, are created. Not everyone has to produce food. Food production is instead regulated to…

20. Food-Producing SocietiesCharacterized by… • Peasants: Rural cultivators whose surpluses are transferred to a dominant group of rulers that uses the surpluses both to underwrite its own standard of living and to distribute the remainder to groups in society that do not farm but must be fed for their specific goods and servies in turn.

21. Economic Systems and Economic Anthropology • Like the study of language, politics, gender or any other category pertaining to humans, the study of human economic systems (I.e. organized arrangements for producing, distributing and consuming goods), must be considered via the holistic perspective

22. Economic Systems and Economic Anthropology • Ethnographic Example • Ex: Trobriand Islanders views of yams • Studied by Bronislaw Malinowski • “Like people the world over, the Trobriand Islanders assign meanings to objects that make those objects worth far more than either cost in labor or materials.” • Yams = status. The more yams a man has, the more $$ and power.

23. Production and its Resources • Labor Resources and Patterns • Division of Labor by Gender • Flexible/integrated pattern: Seen most often among food foragers. Men and women perform equal amount of activities. “Men’s work and “Women’s work” may be undertaken by either task without any social stigmas.

24. Production and its Resources • Labor Resources and Patterns • Division of Labor by Gender • Dual sex configuration: Seen often in many Native American groups (also in ancient Egypt!).Men and women have their own tasks that are deemed complimentary. Men’s work is not better than women’s and vice versa.

25. Production and its Resources • Labor Resources and Patterns • Division of Labor by Gender • Segregated pattern: Seen most often in pastoral nomadic,intensive agricultural, and industrial societies. All work as either masculine or feminine. Men and women rarely engage in joint efforts, and doing work of the opposite gender would be inconceivable.

26. Production and its Resources • Labor Resources and Patterns • Division of Labor by Age • Both the young and the old play significant roles across the economic spectrum, with the young helping out with food production and the elderly as repositories of economic knowledge. • Craft Specialization • Typically characteristic of industrial and post-industrial societies that can support individuals who do not grow/produce their own food.

27. Distribution and Exchange • Reciprocity: The exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties. • Generalized Reciprocity: A mode of exchange in which the value of what is given is not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified. Usually amongst family and friends. • Ex: Stopping to help up someone who trips, needs to use your phone for an emergency, asks for a french fry, etc.

28. Distribution and Exchange • Reciprocity: The exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties. • Balanced Reciprocity: A mode of exchange in which the giving and receiving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery. • Ex: Gifts at a B-day party/wedding/baby shower, buying drinks/being the DD for inebriated friends if it is your “turn” to do so.

29. Distribution and Exchange • Reciprocity: The exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties. • Negative Reciprocity: A form of exchange in which the aim is to get something for as little as possible. Neither fair not balanced it may involve hard bargaining, and outright cheating. • Ex: Keeping a significant other’s things after a break-up, with the knowledge that the person may want their belongings returned.

30. Distribution and Exchange • Redistribution:A form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, where they are sorted, counted and reallocated. • Ex: Ancient Egyptian temple donations

31. Distribution and Exchange • Redistribution • Spending Wealth to Gain Prestige • Conspicuous Consumption: (What we do in most Euroamerican culture). A showy display of wealth for social prestige. • Potlatch: Comes from “patshatl meaning “gift” from Chinook Native American language. A ceremonial event in which a village chief publicly gives away stockpiled food and other goods that signify wealth. • Prestige Ceremony: Creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a public display of weath that is given away as gifts.

32. Distribution and Exchange • Redistribution • Leveling Mechanisms: Opposite of the the above. A cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host public feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates significantly more wealth than anyone else.

33. Distribution and Exchange • Market Exchange:Euroamerican system. The buying and selling of goods and services with prices set by rules of supply and demand. • Informal Economy: A network of producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape government control. • Ex: Babysitting, house cleaning, begging, prostitution, drug dealing, gambling…etc.