Chad Wickman Kent State University

1. Chad Wickman Kent State University Hypertext and Writing

2. Background and Motivation • Defining Hypertext (Writing) • Hypertext Writing as Artifact and Process • Hypertext Writing and Learning Outcomes Aim: Review and synthesize empirical studies that take the production of hypertext as an object of analysis

3. How have researchers approached hypertext writing as an object of analysis?

4. Selection Criteria • Focus on Writing • Timeliness • Empirically-Based • High Import or Influence • 12 year period (1996-2008)

5. Hypertext Studies: Primary Foci Hypertext Artifacts Object Hypertext Production Process Hypertext and Learning Mediational

6. What is Hypertext?

7. Before Hypertext A memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory. -Vannevar Bush—‘As We May Think’

8. Memex

9. Memex in Use

10. Defining Hypertext By ‘hypertext’, I mean nonsequential writing – text that branches and allows choices to the readers, best read at an interactive screen. As popularly conceived, this is a series of text chunks connected by links which offer the reader different pathways. -Ted Nelson—Literary Machines

11. Nelson’s File Structure

12. Writing Hypertext Writing hypertext encompasses all productive activities with hypertext. It includes the learner producing a hypertext from scratch as well as rearranging existing hypertexts by setting new links, integrating new nodes, or transforming given traditional text into hypertext. -Bromme and Stahl—Writing and Learning

13. Artifacts of Hypertext Writing

14. Deadman (1997) • ‘Analysis of pupils’ reflective writing within a hypermedia framework’ • Comparative study of two groups: one writing with and one without an instructor-generated hypermedia framework • Students writing within framework improved their reasoning and produced writing that moved away from description and toward analysis

15. Pohl (1998) • ‘Hypermedia as a cognitive tool’ • How do student writers develop hypertext? • Students used hypertext authoring system to produce hypertext documents • Author analyzed results according to document structure and use of screen design and layout; students utilized a range of linking strategies fostered by concept mapping tool

16. Chang, Sun, and Zheng (2007) • ‘Hypermedia authoring with writing process guidance’ • Authors developed writing process guidelines that were used by one of two groups of junior high school students • Group with guidance produced better Web pages in terms of content, layout, and structure

17. Process Analyses of Hypertext Writing

18. Yang (1996) • ‘A dynamic reading-linking-to-writing model…’ • What cognitive processes underlie novice learners’ problem solving when using hypermedia applications? • RLW model attempts to account for cognitive and meta- cognitive processes (procedural, systemic), affective responses, physical operations, and social context in the production of hypertext writing.

19. Braaksma et al. (2002) • ‘Learning to compose hypertext and linear text’ • What are the similar and disparate processes involved in linear and hyper-textual writing? • Simple vs. complex linear and hierarchical writing tasks (hierarchical diagram to linear and vice versa) • Students drew upon similar cognitive processes, but hypertext writing stimulated meta-cognitive activities which are known to influence the quality of the written product

20. Pohl and Purgahofer (2004) • ‘Hypertext writing profiles and visualization’ • Students produced documents using a hypertext authoring system with a node and an overview editor • Monitoring tool used to collect data and examine writing processes via ‘moving window analysis’ • Students benefitted from overview maps and experimented with several aspects of hypertext writing

21. Hypertext Writing and Learning Potential

22. Lehrer (1993) • ‘Authors of knowledge: Patterns of hypermedia design’ • Implements a hypermedia application in order to fuse ‘hypercomposition’ with knowledge-as-design metaphor • Two groups of students that are more/less successful in school create hypermedia presentations • Both groups exhibited increased involvement in learning; patterns of collaboration; rich hierarchical structures; depth of knowledge, and long term retention of content.

23. Bromme and Stahl (1999) • ‘Spatial Metaphors and writing hypertexts’ • What is the relationship between metaphor, hypertext construction, and learning effects? • Correlation between metaphors used by teachers and the way students structured hypertext writing; metaphors (book, spatial) shape the way students compose hypertext in terms of structure and complexity.

24. Bromme and Stahl (2002) • ‘Learning by producing hypertext from reader perspectives: Cognitive flexibility theory reconsidered’ • Do students develop flexible knowledge by combining multiple audience perspectives with hypertext writing? • Adopting multiple perspectives shapes hypertext writing processes and fosters both knowledge transfer and cognitive flexibility

25. What do these studies have in common?

26. Graphic Synthesis

27. Graphic Synthesis

28. Directions and Possibilities • Examining hypertext writing as part of activity—not only through controlled studies but in contexts where the creation of hypertext is part of everyday communication • Examining various forms of hypermedia that continue to shape writing and text production • Creating interdisciplinary relationships to examine the effects of hypertext on research, teaching, and learning

29. Thank You