Crime Deviance

1. Crime & Deviance offenders and victims over-lapping categories http://www.ncjrs.org/victhome.html http://www.gopher.usdoj.gov/ojp/ovc.html

2. Risks of Victimization The �gift� of fear - the presence of behavioral and instinctual cues before crime: e.g.�forced teaming� Fear of crime is inverse to the actual risks of victimization - the elderly, woman and the married tend to perceive risks of victimization greater than it is - but at what costs to the way they and we live?

3. Victim Resistance - PBL You are walking home late at night and you are confronted by an armed man who demands your possessions - what should you do? You are alone in your home fast asleep when you are confronted by a male intruder who threatens to kill you if you do not perform fellatio - what should you do? Would you behave differently if the victim was armed with a knife?

4. Victim Resistance Block and Skogan�s (1986) study of resistance to robbery and rape found: non-forceful resistance lowered risks of injury and the completion of the robbery forceful resistance reduced the chances of the robbery being completed but increased victim injuries forceful resistance by rape victims had no effect and increased injury non-forceful resistance did reduce completion of rape but did not effect injury risk

5. Victim Resistance verbal rather than physical resistance is generally more effective �all the research suggest that resistance does not result in an increase in severe injury� Grace (1993)

6. Risks of Victimization Males Poor young: 15-24 years of age migrants and minorities unemployed single or separated know the offender general lifestyle

7. Risks of Victimization Based on the HKCVS [1994] victims know the offender : Assault 33.0% Blackmail 11.5% Robbery 4.9% Sexual assault ? (69% in Australia) Intimidation 32.4%

8. Stages of Victimization (Viano 1989) the actual experience of harm perception of harm as undeserved, unfair or unjust and self-identification as victim. attempts at getting others to recognize the harm and validate the victim status external validation of victim status key element - the affront to the victims sense of order and control

9. Needs of Victims (Shapland 1984) immediate attention (safety & protection) ongoing support & information formal representation in court restitution and compensation important initial role of the police

10. Needs of Victims (Shapland 1984) The 6 basic needs: Recognition Re-assurance Protection Information Support; and Advice

11. Crime Victims and Gender: special needs of women & children differential reporting and risks of victimization intimacy and relationships psychology of victimization needs of victims reforms to the Criminal Justice System post-trauma stress disorders

12. Services to Victims special services for specific crimes: sexual assault, child abuse, domestic violence and homicide/robbery. The assessment of PTSD NGOs as advocates and support police special units and programmes victim impact statements for courts and offender sentencing reparation, mediation and restorative justice approaches victim-offender mediation and FGC�s

13. PTSD & Crime Victimization: DSM IV -R [309.91] �experience, witness or confronted with events that involve actual or threatened death or serious injury or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others the persons response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror [In children this may be expressed by disorganized or agitated behavior.�

14. PTSD & Crime Victimization: DSM IV -R [309.91] Acute, Chronic, Complex or Delayed Onset forms: symptoms that�. �cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other important areas of functioning�

15. PTSD & Crime Victimization: DSM IV -R [309.91] trauma is persistently re-experienced as one or more of the following: distressing dreams or intrusive recollections, spontaneous flashbacks, distress at exposure to internal or external cues physiological re-activity on exposure to cues persistence avoidance of stimuli associated with event persistent symptoms of increased arousal of two of the following:

16. PTSD & Crime Victimization: DSM IV -R [309.91] persistent symptoms of increased arousal of two of the following: Sleep irritability/anger lack of concentration hyper-vigilance or an exaggerated �startle� response

17. Women�s Safety: Sexual Assault in Hong Kong

18. Women�s Safety: Sexual Assault in Hong Kong

19. % of Crimes Reported to HKP [CVS 1998]

20. Obstacles to Business in HK UN ICBS (pilot survey n =612)

21. 21

22. Crime & Deviance: Offenders and Criminality Associations between crime and offenders

23. Stalking: a new �crime� ? Paul Mullen, Michele Path� & Rosemary Purcell, 2000 Stalkers and their Victims, Cambridge University Press.

24. Psychological Impact on Stalking Victims Unlike other crimes stalking victims are exposed to repeated & persistent harassment or threats. Victims fearful & hyper-vigilant & may have flashbacks & repeated nightmares. Social, occupational & recreational functions are disrupted. Many suffer mental & physical deterioration & report symptoms of PTSD. Victims describe feelings of violation, loss of control in their lives & a pervasive sense of mistrust in others.

25. Stalking - classifications & typologies Mullen et al (2000) identify six types Rejection stalkers Resentful stalkers Intimacy seekers Erotomanic stalker Incompetent suitor Predatory stalker

26. Stalking - classifications & typologies Rejection stalkers: pursue their victims in order to reverse, correct or avenge a rejection (e.g. divorce, separation, termination). Resentful stalkers: pursue a vendetta because of a sense of grievance against the victims - motivated mainly by the desire to frighten and distress the victim. Intimacy seekers: failing at a relationship with the victim, they feel mistreated and hope to either resurrect the relationships or compensate by seeking revenge. Any attention is better than none.

27. Stalking - classifications & typologies Eroto-manic stalker: fantasize and feel �loved� by a celebrity or of a higher social status - stalking establishes an intimate relationship with the victim. Incompetent suitor: despite poor social/courting skills, they possess a sense of entitlement to an intimate relationship with those who have attracted their amorous interest. Predatory stalker: behaviour is instrumental - usually a sexual attack on the victim by following and �spying� on the victims they prepare and plan the attack .

28. Prevalence & Incidence of Stalking US statistics reported by Tjaden & Thoennes (1998): 8.1% of women 2.2% of men were stalked. In the UK in 1997: 12,000 complaints & 300 convictions. The prevalence of stalking is unknown in HK and can�t be estimated from official records as it is not a crime. Stalking events in HK are (awkwardly) dealt with under the Privacy Ordinance, Domestic Violence Ordinance, i.e, threats & criminal intimidation. Law Reform Commission�s sub-committee on privacy identified 38 cases of stalking in 2001

29. The Law RC�s Privacy Sub-committee on Stalking Emotion-based - Intimacy stalkers (6 cases) relationship break downs, one party may stalk the other on the pretext of having been mistreated. The stalker hopes to either resurrect the relationship or to seek revenge or compensation. Erotomania (12 cases) �a result of fantasizing that he or she is being loved by the victim. The victim is sometimes a celebrity or someone who is of a higher social status. The intention of this type of stalker is to establish a relationship with the victim.

30. Stalking Dispute-based or Resentful Stalking often dissatisfied clients (10 cases) like an upset customer who may stalk staff of public organizations (e.g., welfare services, housing authority, health center, GP, etc.) employees of private firms for restitution or revenge disgruntled neighbours (4 cases) Intimidation Stalking a triad society uses stalking as a means of recruiting new members or to control insubordinate members debt collectors use stalking as a means of collecting bad debts. a neighbour may harass another to payback for perceived misdeeds a neighbour may harass another to payback for perceived misdeeds

31. Stalking - Offenders Three distinctive groups or forms: (a) Serial stalkers �seeks out a series of idealized victims and transfer their anger from one to another victim. (b) Cyber-stalkers �use the internet to harass or to send obscene emails to their victims. (c) Distressed & Disturbed - specific to a certain victim or situation & non-repetitive

32. Stalking - offenders Stalking is self-gratifying behaviour: the stalker�s distortions support persistence in following victims & ultimately aid his goal of non-abandonment. The lonesome behaviour becomes a substitute - obsessive daily occupation. Management, sometimes is achieved with restraining orders. Treatment - CBTs - Cognitive Behavioural Techniques are useful.

33. Stalking - treating offenders CBTs are useful if they: shift the distorted belief to an alternative; educate about the costs (i.e. time, energy, shame, prison); victim awareness training; improve social skills & establish new friendships, activities & networking self-mental health needs & anger management training may be appropriate.

34. Support for victims Identify the motive of the stalker & assess the victim�s accessibility and vulnerability The context of the incident determines preventive measures: e.g. confidentiality (i.e., helping the victim to relocate and keeping the new address from the stalker); Develop a personal safety plan that reduces the likelihood of becoming a victim

35. Support for victims The effect of �psychological terrorism� often may require radical life changes (like moving home/changing name, job). PTSD reported up to 2 years after being stalked & psychological help aims to: a) understand the stress & trauma b) therapy to help regain control of their lives c) overcome past memories of the trauma d) overcome the anxieties and depression.

36. 36 Offenders

37. Offenders & Crime: Braithwaite�s Generalisations More crime committed by 15-45 year olds & mostly by males More crime committed by unmarried people More crime committed by people living in large cities people who believe strongly in the in importance of obeying the law are less likely to violate the law Low socio-economic status increases rates of all types of crime apart from white collar crime more �crime� by people who have high residential mobility and who live in high mobility districts

38. 38

39. Offenders and Crime: continued... young people who are attached to their school are less likely to engage in crime young people who have high educational or occupational aspirations are less likely to engage in crime young people who do poorly at school are more likely to engage in crime young people who are strongly attached to their parents are less likely to engage in crime young people who have friendships with criminals are more likely to engage in crime

40. What do we know about crime & criminals? the idea or definition of crime is relative and not always a function of natural consensus crimes of the powerful, the state or corporations are under -represented & neglected a surprisingly few �criminals� are responsible for most crime most �known� criminals are: male. young, minority, single, lower class and unskilled or unemployed

41. What do we know about crime & criminals? most crime involves offences against property while violence is rare although in Less Developed Countries this relationship may be reversed in developed societies personal or violent crime has decreased with modernity but other crime especially property have increased the role of family, school, peers and community are crucial factors in crime causation

42. 42 Crime as entertainment: Durkheims social functions of crime & punishment

43. What do we know about crime & criminals? crime - especially serious violent crime is extremely rare - even in �violent societies� the role of the state and of the CJS is less effective and more limited than supposed punishment - especially imprisonment appears to have little effect on the risks of crime: ie general deterrence is more complex than expected the role of the media and culture is more powerful than supposed