Review Time: Management of Learning (MOL)

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Lesson 18: Data Coding and Screening

Lesson 18, Objectives : The learner will Learning Competency/ies: The Learner will 1. infers and explain patterns and themes from data – using Codes

References Bourque, Linda B. "Coding." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. Eds. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Timothy Futing Liao, v. 1, 132-136. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2004. Lee, Epstein and Andrew Martin. "Coding Variables." In The Encyclopedia of Social Measurement. Ed. Kimberly Kempf-Leonard, v.1, 321-327. New York: Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. Shenton, Andrew K. “The analysis of qualitative data in LIS research projects: A possible approach.” Education for Information 22 (2004): 143-162.

(15 mins) Q and A: 1. How do you present the results or data in a Qualitative Research? 2. What is the difference between a data in Quantitative and Qualitative? 3. How do you categorize data? 4. How is data analyzed? 5. What could be issues in data gathering?

Qualitative Inquiry Purpose - to produce findings. The Data Collection process is not an end in itself. The culminating activities of qualitative inquiry are analysis, interpretation, and presentation of findings. Challenge • To make sense of massive amounts of data, reduce the volume of information, identify significant patterns and construct a framework for communicating the essence of what the data reveal

The Credibility of Qualitative Analysis • depends on three distinct but related inquiry elements: • Rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-quality data that is carefully analysed, with attention to issues of validity, reliability, and triangulation; • The credibility of the researcher, which is dependent on training, experience, track record, status, and presentation of self; • Philosophical belief in the phenomenological paradigm, that is, a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods, inductive analysis and holistic thinking.

Bogdan and Biklen "working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and deciding what you will tell others" (1982:145) challenge – to place the raw data into logical, meaningful categories; to examine them in a holistic fashion; to communicate this interpretation to others.

Common stages of analysis • Familiarisationwith the data through review, reading, listening etc. • Transcriptionof tape recorded material. • Organisation and indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification. • Anonymising of sensitive data. • Coding(or indexing). • Identification of themes. • Re-coding. • Development of provisional categories. • Exploration of relationships between categories. • Refinement of themes and categories. • Development of theory and incorporation of pre-existing knowledge. • Testing of theory against the data. • Report writing, including excerpts from original data if appropriate (e.g., quotes from interviews).

What is data coding? • “A systematic way in which to condense extensive data sets into smaller analyzable units through the creation of categories and concepts derived from the data.”1 • “The process by which verbal data are converted into variables and categories of variables using numbers, so that the data can be entered into computers for analysis.”2 • Lockyer, Sharon. "Coding Qualitative Data." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods, Edited by Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Timothy Futing Liao, v. 1, 137-138. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2004. • Bourque, Linda B. "Coding." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods, Edited by Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Timothy Futing Liao, v. 1, 132-136. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2004.

Levels of Coding(For qualitative data) • Open • Break down, compare, and categorize data • Axial • Make connections between categories after open coding • Selective • Select the core category, relate it to other categories and confirm and explain those relationships Strauss, A. and J. Corbin. Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990 as cited in Lockyer, S., 2004.

Why do data coding? • It lets you make sense of and analyze your data. • For qualitative studies, it can help you generate a general theory. • The type of statistical analysis you can use depends on the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how it’s coded. • “Coding facilitates the organization, retrieval, and interpretation of data and leads to conclusions on the basis of that interpretation.”1 Lockyer, Sharon. "Coding Qualitative Data." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods, Edited by Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Timothy Futing Liao, v. 1, 137-138. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2004

Importance of codebook (Shenton, 2004) • Allows study to be repeated and validated. • Makes methods transparent by recording analytical thinking used to devise codes. • Allows comparison with other studies.

Determining Codes, cont. • Exhaustive – a unique code number has been created for each category ex. if religions are the category, also include agnostic and atheist • Mutually Exclusive – information being coded can only be assigned to one category • Residual other – allows for the participant to provide information that was not anticipated, i.e. “Other” _______________

Determining Codes, cont. • Missing Data - includes conditions such as “refused,” “not applicable,” “missing,” “don’t know” • Heaping – is the condition when too much data falls into same category, ex. college undergraduates in 18-21 range (variable becomes useless because it has no variance)

Creating Code Frame Prior to Data Collection (Bourque, 2004; Epstein & Martin, 2005) • Use this when know number of variables and range of probable data in advance of data collection, e.g. when using a survey or questionnaire • Use more variables rather than fewer • Do a pre-test of questions to help limit “other” responses

Content analysis What is content analysis? Content analysis is a method of coding qualitative and/or quantitative narrative data to identify the prevalence of key themes and issues in relation to a particular context.

When is content analysis useful? • When . . . • your research question is best analysed by organising the data in a thematic way • your research requires you to gather narrative data from interviews, focus groups or field notes

When is content analysis useful? • When . . . • the codes for analysing your data can be derived before the data is collected • it is important to identify the context within which certain words and terms are used • the results do not need to be generalisable to the wider population

Effectiveness The effectiveness of the content analysis is dependent on the effectiveness of the codes. Codes therefore need to be:

The coding process Clarify the documents you will use. Which documents will you derive the codes from? Academic literature? Previous data-gathering (interviews, questionnaire)? Organisational documents? Which documents will you use for your analysis? Transcripts from interviews? Open comments on questionnaires? Field notes? Secondary data?

Then clarify the aspects to be coded • Can you identify the key words you need to • search for in the text? Words • Can you identify the themes that may relate to • the words – even if the words themselves are • not used? Themes • Can you identify how people react to the words • and themes? Dispositions

The content coding manual Map your words, themes and dispositions on to the content coding manual So where someone talks of the drivers for change trying to improve things, this would be coded as 1.i.a

No. - refers to the number of responses on a specific question or number of respondent Word/Theme – Key words or topic sentence that captures the thoughts of the respondent Code – Number of coded theme (1 theme = 1 code) Features: Direct explanation of the themes. Meaning of the theme base on the understanding of the respondent Disposition – mood or behavioral manifestation of the respondent during the conversation

The analytical process • Read each text in turn, coding each area as you go • Re-read the texts to draw together the emergent themes • Integrate issues of frequency with notes about dispositions

Producing results from content analysis • The frequency of words and themes is a good place to start • Use features and dispositions to elaborate on the words and themes • Integrate reliable data from the context • Support all claims with evidence – quotations are useful Student Activity 1

Application: 8 Respondents are asked to Define Love… Based on their answers, narrow down the themes and codes.

R1: You know true love when you will lay down you’re life for the ones you love without even thinking about it. Love is Selfless. Push them to safety even knowing you will not survive. If you have to ponder whether or not you would do this you do not truly love. That is absolute for me.

R1: You know true love when you will lay down you’re life for the ones you love without even thinking about it. Love is Selfless. Push them to safety even knowing you will not survive (Sacrificial). If you have to ponder whether or not you would do this you do not truly love. That is absolute for me.

R2: The ONLY thing that will ever change the world is the power of L-O-V-E! The dictionary defines love as a noun, but although I can’t argue the dictionary, I look at love not only as a noun, but more so as a verb. Love isn’t a thing without action! I can say I love you until I’m blue in the face, but it doesn’t mean anything unless I use the verb side, and show you!

R3: Love is natures way of tricking people into reproducing. Love is a trick. Grrrrrghhhhhh. That’s how I have 2 kids now with no father. I was used and abused.

R-4: Love is being kind even when it is ever so hard. Love is serving others, as Jesus served us. You can show others love by being humble. Love is what you make of it. You can love deeply. You can let others see that you love them. You can love without end. You can love unconditionally if you are in Christ. Love is caring even when it is just a little thing. Love is listening when everyone else is trying to solve the problem. Love is looking into their eyes and feeling what they feel. It’s being sad when they are sad, and cheering them up. Love is being full of joy when they are full of joy. When you are joyful you are extremely happy, deeply and without ceasing.

R -5: It just create sparks like it’s magical. You can’t help but smile when you look at the one you love. It makes you blush, feel awkward and you always imagine beautiful things that are of of this world.

R-6: I would describe love as nothing but a risk. They have the ability to make you feel invincible, yet can shatter your heart the next moment. It’s a scary feeling, but most people use it as an excuse to take risks in life. Love is a fire that is constantly fueled by touch, dialogue, and other simple ways to interact. We as people have the choice to decide whether or not we gamble to a possibility of gain or lost. We mostly lost at the end. Ouch!

R-7 Love is Setting free and letting go. The unrequited love deserves to sleep in silence. Its happy to know that the person you love is so near and yet so far. And some who truly loves someone must set free of the other person. Knowing that that person can never be yours.

R-8: Love is stupid. People will use you, abuse you and leave you helpless, hopeless and careless.

Review Time: Management of Learning (MOL)