Chapter 12

1. Chapter 12 Hitt Black Porter Motivation m a n a g e m e n t

2. Learning Objectives • Analyze the motivational forces present in a specific situation. • Differentiate between the various content and process theories of motivation and indicate how each can be helpful in analyzing a given motivational situation. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

3. Learning Objectives • Explain how job enrichment can influence an employee's motivation. • Compare and contrast the various approaches to reinforcement and describe their relative advantages and disadvantages for use by managers. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

4. Learning Objectives • State how goal setting can affect motivation. • Name the major types of social influence on employees' motivation and explain how each type can impact motivation. • Describe how values and attitudes toward work can influence motivation. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

5. What is Motivation? • Motivation • Set of forces • Energize behavior • Direct behavior • Sustain behavior • External and internal forces

6. Sources of Motivation INTERNAL (PUSH FORCES) EXTERNAL (PULL FORCES) Characteristics of THE WORK SITUATION Characteristics of THE INDIVIDUAL Characteristics of THE JOB Needs • For security • For self-esteem • For achievement • For power Attitudes • About self • About job • About supervisor • About organization Goals • Task completion • Performance level • Career advancement (examples) (examples) (examples) Feedback • Amount • Timing Work load Tasks • Variety • Scope Discretion • How job is performed Immediate Social Environment • Supervisor(s) • Workgroup members • Subordinates Organizational actions • Rewards & compensation • Availability of training • Pressure for high levels of output Adapted from Exhibit 12.1: Key Variables that Influence Motivation

7. Motivation Theories Content Theories Process Theories • Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy. • Features in the work environment that satisfy a worker’s needs. Focus • How different variables can combine to influence the amount of effort put forth by employees. Theories • Maslow’s Need Hierarchy • McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory • Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory • Equity Theory • Expectancy Theory Adapted from Exhibit 12.2: Motivation Theories

8. Content Theories of Motivation • Internal factors • Needs • Motives • External factors • Job • Work situation • Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory • McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory • Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

9. Content Theories of Motivation Need Hierarchy • Five needs arranged in a hierarchy of strength and influence • Physiological • Security (safety • Social (belongingness • Esteem • Self-actualization • Satisfy most basic (prepotent) needs first • Move to the next level of needs after preceding needs is satisfied

10. Content Theories of Motivation ERG Theory • Three classifications of needs • Existence • Relatedness • Growth • Different levels of the needs can be active at the same time • Person may stay at one level, if frustrated by trying to attain the next higher level

11. Highest-order needs Self-actualization Growth Esteem Relatedness Belongingness Safety Most essential (prepotent) needs Existence Physiological Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Categories Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy Categories Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories Adapted from Exhibit 12.3: Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchies Categories

12. Content Theories of Motivation Acquired Needs Theory • Learned needs • Achievement • Work on tasks of moderate difficulty • Take moderate risks • Take personal responsibility for one’s own actions • Receive specific and concrete feedback on one’s own performance • Power • Affiliation

13. Content Theories of Motivation Two-Factor Theory • Motivators • Can increase job satisfaction • Factors related to doing the job (work itself, responsibility, personal growth, sense of achievement, recognition) • Hygiene factors • Can prevent dissatisfaction, but cannot increase satisfaction • Factors extrinsic to or surrounding the job (supervision, relations with co-workers, working conditions, company policies and practices)

14. Motivators and Hygiene Factors Motivators: Factors directly related to doing a job Hygiene Factors: Elements associated with conditions surrounding the job Supervision Recognition Job Growth Achievement Compensation Benefits Responsibility Nature of the work Relations with co-workers Working conditions Adapted from Exhibit 12.4: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Motivators and Hygiene Factors

15. Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators Motivators Intrinsic factors related to the doing of the job itself: • From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Hygiene-Factors Extrinsic factors related to conditions surrounding the job: • Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Adapted from Exhibit 12.5: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Differential Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators

16. Content Theories of Motivation Implications for Job Design • Job characteristics model • Core job characteristics (skill variety and task significance) • Critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for outcomes of work) • Expected outcomes (high internal work motivation and high work effectiveness)

17. Job Characteristics Model Adapted from Exhibit 12.6: Job Characteristics Model

18. Core Job Characteristics Core Job Definition Example Characteristics The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person. Skill variety The aerospace engineer must be able to create blueprints, calculate tolerances, provide leadership to the work group, and give presentations to upper management. The degree to which a job requires completion of a “whole” and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a viable outcome. The event manager handles all the plans for the annual executive retreat, attends the retreat, and receives information on its success from the participants. Task identity The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large. The finance manager devises a new benefits plan to improve health coverage for all employees. Task significance Adapted from Exhibit 12.7: Core Job Characteristics in Job Characteristics Model

19. Core Job Characteristics Core Job Definition Example Characteristics The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Autonomy R&D scientists are linked via the company intranet, allowing them to post their ideas, ask questions, and propose solutions at any hour of the day, whether at the office, at home, or on the road. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. The lathe operator knows he is cutting his pieces correctly, as very few are rejected by the workers in the next production area. Feedback from job Source: Adapted from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980). Adapted from Exhibit 12.7: Core Job Characteristics in Job Characteristics Model

20. Process Theories of Motivation • Deal with the way different variables combine to influence the amount of effort people put forth • Equity theory • Expectancy theory • Social cognitive theory • Goal-setting theory

21. Process Theories of Motivation Equity Theory • Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of others • Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.) • Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.) • Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that ratio of another person or people

22. Equity Theory Adapted from Exhibit 12.8: Equity Theory

23. Effort (E P) x (P O) x V • a Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory • Focuses on the thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternative courses of action • Effort • Performance • Outcome • Expectancy • Instrumentality • Valence

24. Effort Performance Outcome (V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor) Instrumentality Expectancy Expectancy Theory E P (I believe high effort will lead to good performance) P O (I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor) E = effort P = performance O = outcome V = valence Adapted from Exhibit 12.9: Components of Expectancy Theory

25. Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory • To influence employees’ motivation • Identify rewards that are valued • Strengthen subordinates’ beliefs that their efforts will lead to valued rewards • Clarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where they should direct their efforts • Make sure that the desired rewards under your control are given directly following particular levels of performance • Provide levels and amounts of rewards that are consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards

26. Process Theories of Motivation Social Cognitive Theory • Self-efficacy: A person’s confidence that he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situation • Magnitude (how difficult a task can be accomplished) • Strength (certainty of accomplishment), • Generality (extent to which similar but not identical tasks can be accomplished). • High self-efficacy beliefs is associated with better work-related performance

27. Enactive Mastery Vicarious Learning Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Verbal Persuasion Physiological or Psychological Arousal Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Adapted from Exhibit 12.10: Social Cognitive Theory: Methods to Increase an Individual’s Feelings of Selfefficacy

28. Process Theories of Motivation Goal-Setting Theory • Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions • More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals. • Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals.

29. Role of Reinforcements and Consequences • Events that happen to an individual following a particular behavior • Positive consequence • Neutral consequence • Negative consequence • Magnitude of the consequence

30. Strengthening Behavior Positive Reinforcement • Rewards that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future • Equitable • Efficient • Available (capable of being given) • Not exclusive • Visible • Reversible

31. Strengthening Behavior Negative Reinforcement • Undesirable consequences that, by being removed or avoided, increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future

32. Weakening Behavior Punishment and Extinction • Punishment • Undesirable consequences that are given following behavior in order to decrease the likelihood it will be repeated • Can have inadvertent effects of increasing other undesired behavior • Extinction • The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future

33. Reinforcement Approaches Reinforcement Managerial Approach Action Effect Example Positive reinforcement Provide desirable consequence Increase probability of behavior being repeated Highway construction supervisor receives bonus for each day a project is completed ahead of schedule. Negative reinforcement Remove undesirable consequence Increase probability of behavior being repeated Management stops raising output quotas each time workers exceed them. Punishment Provide undesirable consequence Decrease probability of behavior being repeated Habitually tardy crew member is fined the equivalent of one hour’s pay each day he is late to work. Adapted from Exhibit 12.11: Reinforcement Approaches and Their Effects

34. Reinforcement Approaches Reinforcement Managerial Approach Action Effect Example Extinction Remove desirable consequence Decrease probability of behavior being repeated Group member stops making unsolicited suggestions when team leader no longer mentions them in group meetings. Adapted from Exhibit 12.11: Reinforcement Approaches and Their Effects

35. Planned Programs of Positive Reinforcement • Specify desired performance precisely • Measure desired behaviors • Provide frequent positive consequences for specified behaviors • Evaluate the effectiveness of the program

36. Social Influences on Motivation • Influence of the immediate workgroup • Individual is a member of the “in-group” • Individual has strong desire to be part of that group and to receive that group’s approval • Influence of supervisors and subordinates • Influence of organization’s culture

37. Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work • Values • Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will find rewarding and satisfying • Attitudes toward work • Work centrality • Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual at a point in time • Differs between cultures

38. Differences in Core Values Core Values American Japanese Arabic Competition Risk-taking Material possessions Freedom Group harmony Belonging Reputation Family security Religious belief Social recognition Adapted from Exhibit 12.12: Differences in Core Values among Three Cultures

39. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Work Centrality: Country Differences Germany (4.29) Israel (4.89) Japan (5.2) United States (4.79) Work Centrality Adapted from Exhibit 12.13: Work Centrality: Country Differences