The scientific way of knowing or “the scientific method”

1. The scientific way of knowing or “the scientific method” Dr. Bartjan W. Pennink University of Groningen Faculty of Economics and Business

2. The scientific way is to ask questions and search for answers. Is the scientific way the only way to seek valid answers to important questions?

3. What research is • Research is: “…the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.”1

4. The aim of research: • The aim of theory-based research is ‘to develop knowledge’. • The aim of practical research is ‘to solve problems’. • The aim of business research is a balance between both forms of research.

5. Scientist have to take the time to think logically when they are investigating a question or problem. • They break things down into many steps that make sense.

6. Scientific research • Scientific statements must be logically correct and must be consistent with our observations.

7. Scientific research: • Formulating a problem statement • Formulating a theoretical framework • Developing a research design • Data collection • Data analysis • Confronting empirical results with the theoretical framework • Conclusions (adapting theory if necessary)

8. Methodology is an explicit way of structuring one’s thinking and acting. Source: Jayaratna, 1994

9. Scientific research ends up in: • Identifying general patterns and relationships • Testing and refining theories • Making predictions • Interpreting culturally or historically significant phenomena • Exploring diversity • Giving voice • Advancing new theories

10. Analytical tools

11. Analytical tool • A fundamental way of thinking in science

12. The empirical cycle and theoretical thinking

14. Analytical tool • The context of research typified in a triangle

15. The field within which research is conducted The world of the company Research The world of the researcher The world of science

16. Analytical tool • The relation between management problems and research questions

17. Problem Solution Question Answer

18. Problems? • “in a subjective sense there is a problem if someone is down with something” De Leeuw, p. 26, 1990 • Problem= f(perception, objective, reality) De Leeuw (& Kramer), p. 155, 1990 3. There is a problem if someone can make a choice. That is, there should be different alternatives.

19. Wanted situation Current situation Someone who is bothered by this Problem statement • The problem definition: • A problem is the difference between the current and the wished situation and someone who is bothered by this, i.e. the problem owner.

20. Ph analysis (What is the acidification rate?) • Mapping the interests of the stakeholders • Appointing the stakeholders • Answer to what, where, when, who, why, how

21. The Iceberg Principle • The principle indicating that the dangerous part of many business problems is neither visible to nor understood by managers.

22. Identifying the problem Problem makers: The people in the organization who have the power to put a problem on the organization’s agenda. Problem sponsors: Without their support a basis for the problem won’t develop as a result of which the problem won’t remain on the agenda. Problem owners: The people in the organization who have the ‘ownership rights’ of problem, either voluntarily or compulsory. Problem solvers: The people who should concretely handle the problem; solve, advise, examine. Problem stakeholders: The people whose stakes are involved; the problem is about those people.

23. Analyzing problems • What is and what is not the problem? • When does it occur and when doesn’t it occur? • Why does it occur and why doesn’t it occur? • Where does it occur and where doesn’t it occur? • Who is contributing to the occurrence and who is contributing to the ending? • How to ascertain a problem’s occurence? Source: Mike Robson, Probleemoplossen in groepen, 1994

24. “The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution”(Albert Einstein)

25. Analytical tool • The role of theory and concepts

27. Problem (example) • An employee of a local bank does not feel that committed to the policy document, so he does not want to be judged based on his input. • What is “that involved”? • Input to the policy document? • Output measurement? • Employee: function differentiation?

28. Solution • More employee involvement in the policy planning cycle. A more goal-oriented approach per employee. • Should the employee deliver more input to the planning making? • Differentiating among employees (dependent on function)? • Should the employee perform better?

29. Reflection • How to know the feelings of an employee? • Why is involvement important? • How much involvement? • How to judge? • Is the judgment related to the will of an employee? • What is the relation between input and policy document? • Judgment, input and output?

30. Possible research question • How can professionals be stimulated?

31. Theoretical support Theory about professionals  Read Freidson

32. Research answer Ways in which professionals can improve their work and ways in which professionals can be led.

34. The Evolution of Management Theory Figure 2.1

35. "It is the theory that decides what can be observed." • Albert Einstein

36. Analytical tool • Two different starting positions

37. Starting research (1) • Don’t know anything? • Know exactly what you want to know?

38. Starting research (2) Know exactly what you want to know? Don’t know anything? The research will result in: 1. A problem statement for future research 2. A graphical model to conduct future research 3. A sketch of the researcher’s position and considerations • The research will result in: • A description of the empirical data • A confirmation or rejection of the used theory • A proposal to conduct an intervention • An estimation of the feasibility of the intervention

39. Analytical tool • A characterization of the research question

40. Nature of the research question • Open • Closed The (research) question is open because of: • the nature of the problem • epistemological considerations

41. Deductive versus Inductive I start with theory. I confirm a hypothesis. I tend to do quantitative research. I start with data. I infer conclusions from my data. I tend to do qualitative research. Deductive, theory testing Inductive, theory building

42. The blocks set: open question Problem solution Problem description Use of model/theory Searching with guiding concepts Conducting search strategies Realizing following-up Combining data collection and analysis Research question Research answer

43. The blocks set in the form of questions (open question) • Which guiding concepts are used? • Which search strategies are used? (who are searching?) • How does the data collection analysis take place? (use a logbook) • What about the: • Reliability • Transparency • Validity • How is increased understanding shown and made clear? • Does the research answer fit the research question and problem situation?

44. Blocks set: closed question Problem solution Problem description Model/theory Operationalizing/measuring Data analysis Data collection Striving for validity and reliability Developing and conducting a design Research answer Research question

45. The blocks set in the form of questions • What is the nature of the question? • How are concepts concretized? • How measured? • How to assess the answers to questions? • Where/at whom and how often are data collected? • How are data collected? • How are data analyzed? • Does the answer fit the question and the problem?

46. Scientific method (Deductive thinking) World of concepts Theory Prediction Revision (Inductive thinking) “Real” world Observation Verification

47. The start of reasoning

48. To start a reasoning • What is the situation? • What is the complication? • What is the question?

49. The situation: Managers who communicate

50. The complication: Bad Communications