Review

1. Review Natural selection works on an organism’s _____________________. Species that still exist on Earth remain because on their specific ____________. What are the three ways that natural selection can work on a population? What is the likely outcome of each? What is it called when two different organisms that share similar pressures of nature are forced to evolve similar traits? What is it called when genetic equilibrium is disturbed? Name three things the can cause this. What two things cause gene flow? What are the two main reasons for nonrandom mating? Name three things that can happen to a small population. Name two things that can cause a bottlenecking effect. How does it promote evolution? When the founder effect occurs because of the change in a river’s path it is called: Phenotype Adaptations Stabilizing selection = inbreeding Directional selection = completely new species Disruptive selection = one species is split into 2 Convergent evolution Evolution --Mutations/immigration/natural selection Immigration and emigration Completion for mates and ease of mating with those that are close. Founder effect, bottleneck effect and genetic drift. Humans, fire, disease/ the remaining population’s genes may be far different than the original population Geographical isolation

2. When a species is isolated into two groups for a long enough time, what will eventually happen that now places them into two separate species? • What is the most is the most significant factor that disrupts genetic equilibrium? • How would you define a mass extinction? • What is so different about the current mass extinction? • What is an organism’s niche? • What causes the fundamental niche and realized niche to differ? • How can two organisms with similar needs live in the same area? • 16. Species such as the dusky sparrow, the passenger pigeon, and the woolly mammoth are extinct. Populations of other species have declined to the point where they are designated as threatened or endangered. • Identify one threatened or endangered species and explain why its population has declined. Reproductive isolation Natural selection Extinction rate greater than the background rate Cause by a single species (US) Their role in the community Competition Resource partitioning Giant panda/ habitat destruction of the bamboo forest California condor/DDT pesticide pollution caused eggshell thinning Tiger/Poached for their coats and medicinal reasons Sharks (white and black tip)/Hunted for fins to make shark fin soup All big cats/need large hunting areas threatened by loss of habitat Elephants/poached for their tusks to get ivory Poison arrow frog/complicated life cycles that are hindered by water pollution Rhinoceros/poached for their horns to be used in medicine Tropical fish/Captured and sold to collectors for aquariums

3. B. Discuss two human activities that cause species to become endangered • C. Describe two characteristics of organisms that would make them particularly vulnerable to extinction. Habitat destruction-Farming, logging, expansion of cities or villages (Urban Sprawl) Hunting and poaching-Using animal parts for food, medicine or selling as souvenirs Introduction of invasive species-These out compete the native species for niches in the habitat Sale of exotic pets and plants-tropical fish, plants like orchards, rare birds, reptiles and amphibians sell for high prices to collectors Predator and pest control-Chemicals used to control pest can kill non-target native species Pollution-toxic chemicals, organic compounds, sewage, plastics can kill sensitive species or threaten their food supply Fewer offspring-loss of an infant has a greater effect on numbers High level of parental control-much time, energy, and resources given to care of young lower number of offspring they can have Later age of reproduction-need more resources and life expectancy to have offspring Specialized feeding behavior-Habitat loss can threaten their food source Large size-easier to hunt and poach Large territories-Habitat loss can isolate them (no mating) or reduce their hunting ground Specialized niche-habitat destruction increase competition for niches Feed high on the trophic-Loss of organisms at lower levels decreases food supply also toxins biomagnify to top predators

4. D. Present three arguments in favor of the maintenance of biodiversity. Increases the stability of the ecosystem Future medical resources Future food resources Scientific, aesthetic and religious value

5. Review • Matching • A. Invasive species 1. Their loss would lead to the extinction of other forms of life • B. Foundation species 2. Species that change or reshape the ecosystem opening niches • C. Keystone species 3. Africanized killer bees • D. Indicator species 4. Birds, amphibians and fish • 5. Species that are very sensitive to environmental change • 6. Sea otter • 7. Elephant • 8. They outcompete the native species for resources • 9. If their numbers begin to drop there may be environmental pollution. • 10. They have a larger impact on the ecosystem than any other organism. C B A D D C B A D C Cryptic coloration Allows a harmless organism to be protected by looking like a harmful one 11. What is the scientific term for camouflage? 12. How does Batesian mimicry help an organism? 13. How did organisms that show Mullerian mimicry most like evolved? Why? 14. What is the scientific term for warning coloration? Convergent evolution. Being so similar they may have experienced similar environmental stressors. Aposematic

6. 15. What are the two biggest driving forces of evolution in order? Natural selection/cooperative relationships • Resource partitioning 16. Finding Nemo • Mutualism 17. -, - relationship • Symbiosis 18. Many species using the same resource in different ways • Commensalism 19. Bee and flowering plants • Parasitism 20. Lichens • Amensalism 21. An interspecific relationship • Competition 22. Leaches • 23. 0,+ relationship • 24. 0,- relationship B G A B B C E D F 25. Which other relationship has the same +,- outcome? 26. Are any of the above relationships obligatory? 27. What is the difference between interspecific and intraspecific competition? Which type of competition is intraspecific only? 28. What are the two major groups of density dependent factors? 29. What is the major group of density independent factors? Predation # 19 and 20 Between two species/within a species/mates Competition and disease Abiotic/weather

7. 30. A forest ecosystem is destroyed by a volcanic eruption. There are many steps involved in the process of regrowth. • Discuss which type of succession would follow this disturbance. • B. Explain the role of a pioneer species in succession. What is an example of a pioneer species? • C. Discuss a climax community. • D. Explain the concept or resilience. • E. Discuss how humans have impacted the cycle of succession. Primary succession/ all life as well as soil have been destroyed First species to colonize an area and are able to fix nitrogen, break down rock into soil, add humus when they die and hold water. Examples: Lichens and mosses. A stable community that has large plants with low biodiversity from long periods of no disturbance Ability of an ecosystem to return to its original state Complete deforestation, agriculture, extreme erosion, and vegetation removal

8. Review What does HIPPCO stand for? What is the greatest threat to wild species? What is the second largest threat to wild species? What is the greatest threat to aquatic species? Habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, population, climate change and overharvesting Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation Invasive species Overharvesting The American whooping crane and the California condor are two of North America’s largest birds. Although both are rare and endangered, they are protected, and large preserves are available for them. The two species, however, seem to be responding differently to these conservation efforts. 5. Identify and describe TWO major causes for the original decline of these species. 6. Describe TWO measures that have been taken to protect these species. Habitat loss due to urbanization, wetland destruction, agricultural modification, mineral and fossil fuel extraction leading to loss of food resources, disruption of the food web, loss of breeding grounds. Hunted for feathers, meat, eggs, skins, trophies, and sport. Legislative measures: ESA-cannot be hunted, killed, collected, or harmed. CITES-Cannot be traded commercially as live specimens or products Clean water act-protects wetlands Ban the use of pesticides (DDT) and lead shot bullets Other measures: Captive breeding, public education, tagging and tracking, and population monitoring

9. Distribution of zebra mussels in the United States • 30. Why are Zebra Mussels located primarily in areas in the eastern United States rather than in the western United States? • 31. How are zebra mussels introduced into isolated lakes? Describe one viable method for preventing the spread of zebra mussels into isolated lakes. The animal was introduced in the eastern U.S. and is still spreading across the continent. The western mountain ranges (e.g., the Rockies) serve as a natural barrier to dispersal. Mechanisms of zebra mussel introduction • Transport of boats or boat trailers with mussels attached • Inundation of isolated lakes with floodwater containing mussels • Building canals or other waterways between previously isolated lakes • Transport by animal vectors (migratory waterfowl, etc.) Methods to prevent spread of zebra mussels • Thorough inspection/cleaning of boats before transport or launch • Flushing or draining of water between water bodies • Refraining from building connecting waterways

10. 32. Identify and explain one impact that zebra mussels can have on aquatic ecosystems. 33. Identify another invasive species, either terrestrial or aquatic, and describe one negative impact it has had. Competition from zebra mussels for available resources/Decreased populations of other species (mollusks, insects, etc.) and Disrupts food chains/Eats food required by other species. Increased water clarity/Mussels are filter feeders, removing solids from water as they feed and Increased photosynthesis and primary productivity and Increased populations of other species (certain fish, waterfowl, etc.) from greater primary productivity Invasive Species Negative Impact Cane toad Toxin kills native predators. Rats Eat bird’s eggs; spread disease. Snakehead fish Preys on native fish, reducing populations. Rabbits Clear vegetation. Kudzu vine Smothers other vegetation. Sea lamprey Predation harms other fish. Japanese/Asian beetles Eat native plant species. Pigeon/rock dove Nuisance in cities; vectors of disease. Ice plant Competes with native plant species. Africanized (“killer”) bees Attacks people/animals; displaces honeybees.

11. 34. One strategy for controlling an invasive species has been to introduce another nonnative species to control it; this strategy can often have unintended results. Give a specific example of the use of this strategy and discuss a negative impact of introducing a nonnative species to control an invasive species. 35. Identify TWO specific characteristics of invasive species that enable them to thrive in new environments. Negative Impact • Predation of nontarget species • Competition with native species • Toxic to native predators, or reduces available food to native predators • Alters ecological interactions, e.g., food webs or biogeochemical cycles Biological Control • Ladybird beetles (ladybugs) to feed on pest insects • Parasitoid wasps to control weevils • Bacteria or viruses to control animal pests • Mongoose to hunt rats • Cane toads to prey on insect pests Generalist species Excellent dispersal mechanisms, allowing it to spread R-selected or r-strategist Large clutch size/many offspring produced Early onset of reproduction/early maturation Frequent reproduction Superior defenses against predators in new environment Superior skills as a predator in new environment No pathogens in new habitat

12. Review Name several ways in which animals are overexploited. Name 4 major pollutant that can harm biodiversity. Two causing air pollution, three causing water pollution (one chemical one metal one non-metal or chemical) and two causing soil pollution (one chemical one metal) Name the two major laws, policies of treaties that protect endangered species. What do they do? Killed for food (bush meat, salmon, tuna, shark fin soup etc.) Captured as exotic pets (amphibians, reptiles and birds) Hunted for trophies and skins Hunted for sport Hunted and killed for medicinal purposes Air pollution: burning fossil fuels in cars releases Nox (nitric oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds and carbon dioxide) Burning coal releases soot and sulfur. These can lead to global warming, acid rain, ground level ozone and smog. Water pollution: DDT other pesticides and fertilizers, Mercury or lead, Thermal. Soil pollution: Fertilizers and pesticides, Mercury or lead. CITES-International agreement that endangered species cannot be traded commercially as live specimens or products ESA-Identifies and legally protects endangered species in the U.S. and abroad. They cannot be hunted, killed, collected, or harmed.

13. Rattlesnakes Sound Warning on Biodiversity and Habitat Fragmentation Like the canary in the coal mine, the timber rattlesnake may be telling us something about the environment we share. Microsatellites tracked rattlesnakes to understand how wildlife habitats are affected by even modest human encroachment. “We used this species as a model to investigate general processes underlying population level responses to habitat fragmentation,” said the authors. Researchers discovered that fragmentation of natural habitats. . . has had a significant effect over the past 80 years on genetic structure of timber rattlesnakes in four separate regions of upstate New York. • 4. Discuss how habitat fragmentation can impact the genetic diversity of a species. • 5. Cite and explain two human activities that have led to habitat fragmentation. It limits gene interchange through the population by isolating members of the population from each other It can lead to inbreeding depression by isolating a small population with a small gene pool There is an increased susceptibility to density dependent factor due to living closer together (ex: disease) Building roads, canals, dams, Irrigation ditches through ecosystems. Altering the path of a river Development of buildings and communities (urban sprawl) Covering land for agriculture Deforestation for timber harvesting

14. 6. Explain how the fragmentation of habitats can lead to the loss of biodiversity. • 7. Discuss two solutions to reduce habitat fragmentation as our global human population continues to grow. Reduction of population immigration and emigration reduced gene flow A decrease in available mates reduces reproductive rates of a species decreasing population Species may be cut off from essential resources no longer in their new habitat Decreases the range for animals that need a large territory Barriers to migration are created for migratory animals Restore agricultural land back to natural habitat Protection of large pieces of land through parks and reserves Use of corridors for migrating species

15. Discuss the results of Part I of the investigation • 8. At what population density was the biomass per plant highest? • 9. What resources may have been limited? From data table 1, 10 radish seeds per pot had the greatest biomass. Competition for soil nutrients/as root density increased, less nutrients wood be available for growth Competition for light/as leaf density increased, less light would be available for seedlings Competition for water/Given a fixed amount of water provided, as plant density increased, less water would be available for growth

16. 10. Discuss the results obtained from the class for part I in terms of biological laws or principles The plant population experienced intraspecific competition. At the point above 10 seeds the population appears to have exceeded the carrying capacity for the environment. • Discuss the results of Part II of the investigation • 11. Which plant was most affected by the competition between the two species? • 12. Discuss the results obtained from the class for part II in terms of biological laws or principles From data table 2, the wheat seedlings were most negatively impacted by the presences of the radish The plant populations experienced interspecific competition, with three possible outcomes One species outcompetes the other at the expense of the other(competitive exclusion) The partition resources and coexist in smaller numbers than if alone The two species have no measurable effect on each other (no competition) and remain in normal numbers