A2 PE COMPARATIVE STUDIES: The USA

1. A2 PE COMPARATIVE STUDIES: The USA

2. The USA: A Cultural Context • European COLONISATION (The process whereby another country is taken over by a more dominant one) occurred from 1492 (Columbus). A version of LACROSSE was played by NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES. A version of lawless ‘MOB’ games & ‘DOG FIGHTING’ were played by English settlers at Jamestown. These sports belonged to ‘LOW CULTURE’ • Sports of ‘HIGH CULTURE’ such as HORSE RACING, HUNTING, POLO & CRICKET were popular in Eastern States and were brought to the USA by ARISTOCRACY. • The 1776 DECLARATION of INDEPENDENCE established the formation of the USA with 13 STATES. A policy of ISOLATION (The desire of the USA to separate from the UK & Europe, and stand alone from its colonial past) followed. The development of sports reflected this. Society demanded sports which were reflective of a COMPETITIVE, DIVERSE and DYNAMIC culture. Therefore UK sports were MARGINALISED (Rejected by mainstream culture) • The number of STATES increased WESTWARDS until by the mid 19TH C it spanned from the ATLANTIC to the PACIFIC Oceans. The MIGRATING population moving WEST settled into the FRONTIER (A boundary which marked the point of western expansion). FRONTIERISM refers to the TOUGH, RUGGED, INDEPENDENCE of those settlers who faced adversity. Living conditions were HARSH, and they experienced attacks from NATIVE AMERICANS. This FRONTIER SPIRIT shaped the AMERICAN DREAM (the belief that all people are equal in terms of OPPORTUNITY, and that through HARD WORK, anyone regardless of background can SUCCEED. It is the CORNERSTONE of modern USA culture) • 1840-1885: Mass immigration increased population. All were searching WEALTH. This led to a culture of COMPETITION, & a positive WORK ETHIC in the NEW WORLD (a term associated with OPTIMISM and OPPORTUNITY)

3. The USA: A Cultural Context • Sports played in the USA can be placed into one of 3 categories: • ADAPTATIONS: Modifications that have been made to sports already in existence. EG.. American Football is adapted from Rugby • ADOPTIONS: These are sports taken directly from other CULTURES. An example of this is ICE HOCKEY which has origins in Canada • INVENTIONS: an example of an invented game is BASKETBALL. This is particularly well suited to the American Culture During the 20th C AMERICAN FOOTBALL, BASKETBALL, BASEBALL and ICE HOCKEY were promoted as the ‘BIG 4’ and had the major focus of attention. They were promoted as this for 6 main reasons • They were FAST, ENTERTAINING & INTENSIVE • They fulfilled the CULT OF MANLINESS (this is the ruggedness, hardiness and courage of the FRONTIER SPIRIT. Some Americans were worried this would disappear in modern society. Sport was a way of fulfilling it) • The Frontier Spirit was reproduced in the ‘WIN AT ALL COSTS’ Ethic • A policy of ISOLATIONISM was achieved • These sports provided COMMERCIAL opportunity • By engaging in these sports the NEW SETTLERS became AMERICANISED (the process of becoming an American and accepting the traditions and culture. This is also called ASSIMILATION)

4. The USA: A Cultural Context in Comparison to the UK • The English nation developed a thousand years ago. The USA nation began 236 years ago (1776). It is therefore a YOUNG CULTURE. The UK does not have a FRONTIER. It did follow a policy of AGGRESSIVEEXPANSION overseas (British Empire). This did include America & Australia. At its height the British Empire was the largest in history. ‘The Sun never Set on the Empire’ • The Empire transported British CLASS, TRADITIONS & STRUCTURES across the world. This included SPORTSof HIGH (Real Tennis, Polo, Crickets) & LOW CULTURE (Mob Football). The biggest influence on the development of UK Sports was the PUBLIC SCHOOL system between 1863 & 1888. It occurred in 3 Stages: A) POPULAR RECREATION B) SOCIAL CONTROL C) CULT OF ATHLETICISM • In the USA sports were either ADAPTED, ADOPTED or INVENTED in COLLEGES (University) or WORKING CLASS areas. The IVY LEAGUE universities had the greatest impact on sport and promoted 3 key American VALUES. They also promoted ISOLATIONISM through the sports they chose to play. 1. The ‘CULT OF MANLINESS’ and the ‘FRONTIER SPIRIT’ 2. COMPETITIVENESS 3. LOMBARDIANISM (Win at all Costs) • By contrast the key ETHOS of the UK schools was ENDEAVOUR, SPORTSMANSHIP& AMATEURISM. These Public Schools CODIFIED games such as ASSOCIATION & RUGBY FOOTBALL. These boys then took this into adult life and spread it across the Empire. Some Americans called ‘PROGRESSIVES’ also believed that sport should promote SOCIAL VALUES, and tried to stop professionalism • A CLASS system prevailed in the UK which determined wealth, privilege & SPORTNG OPPORTUNITIES. The GENTLEMAN AMATEUR belonged to the Upper Class who did not play for REWARDS which contradicted the ‘win at all costs’ ethic. WEALTHY Americans did however play High Culture sports such as golf but hired COACHES also to excel. Rugby Union & Cricket had amateur roots. Rugby League and Association Football had working class roots • In the USA an increase in LEISURE TIME, WORKING CLASS IMMIGRATION, IMPROVED TRANSPORT meant more PROFESSIONALISM & SPECTATORISM for BASEBALL, BOXING, HORSE RACING

5. The USA: Geographic & Demographic & Socio-Economic Factors in Comparison to the UK URBANISATION: The growth of Urban areas. The POPULATION of the USA is 300million. Some of its areas are GENUINE WILDERNESS (Uninhabited, inhospitable terrain & no population with wild animals). This has helped stimulate a PASSION for the GREAT OUTDOORS (the natural environment where OUTDOOR ADVENTURE activities take place). The are are major US cities such as NEW YORK & LA. The UK population is 63 million. It has a HIGH POPULATION DENSITY of 200 people per square mile. It has designated AREAS OF NATURAL BEAUTY such as NATIONAL PARKS, but there are no areas of genuine wilderness. TRANSPORT: perceptions of distance differ from the USA to UK because of the scale of the USA. The USA has an advanced network of INTERSTATE HIGHWAYS for car use. INTER STATE AIR TRAVEL is essential and RAIL LINKS are well established. These were laid down in FRONTIER years. This had a major impact on the development of PROFESSIONAL MAJOR LEAGUES in the 1890s. The UK has major motorway networks. Travel to FIXTURES is not inhibited by distance. The introduction of the RAIL network in the 1850s massively developed ORGANISED SPORT, & also RECREATION in the countryside. UK AIR TRAVEL is well developed. CLIMATE & TOPOGRAPHY: The USA has la wide range of climate zones & terrain: DESERT, MOUNTAINOUS, PLAINS, FOREST, TROPICAL, WESTERN MARITIME, ARCTIC. The APPALACHIAN TRAIL (2175 mile) is an example of a wilderness adventure opportunity. The UK is a WESTERN MARITIME climate: WARM SUMMERS and MILD WINTERS. Hostile extremes are RARE. The USA has hosted the WINTER OLYMPICS on 2 occasions. Outdoor adventures can take place though. The longest designated ROUTE is 256 miles (PENNINE WAY). The UK could never host the winter olympics.

6. The USA: Socio-Economic Factors in Comparison to the UK US GOVERNMENT POLICY: it is a REPUBLIC with a strong DEMOCRACY. It has never had a MONARCHY or a HEREDITARY CLASS privilege. There are 3 TIERS to US GOVERNMENT. Its POWER is DECENTRALISED (the power is DISTRIBUTED to the STATE, and not with CENTRAL GOVERNMENT) • FEDERAL (Over arching control of DOMESTIC & FOREIGN POLICY led by the PRESIDENT) • STATE (deals with its own affairs. It has its own CONSTITUTION, GOVT & LAWS with a GOVERNOR) • LOCAL (this concerns particular TOWNS or CITIES) A DECENTRALISED system links very closely with the ECONOMIC system of CAPITALISM & COMMERCIALISM, and links to the VALUES of OPPORTUNITY & FREEDOM. Business & sport is therefore also decentralised. The OLYMPIC GAMES has been funded largely from MULTI NATIONAL commercial businesses in the USA when it has been staged, and not from FEDERAL budgets. Decentralisation also has an impact on the delivery of PHYSICAL EDUCATION as there is no NATIONAL CURRICULUM. There is also not a NATIONAL SPORTS AGENCY or BODY relating to its policy UK GOVERNMENT POLICY: It has a CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY who is the HEAD of STATE with a PRIME MINISTER. Overarching power is with the UK government but DEVOLVED through Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland which has AUTONOMOUS bodies. Local Government has many levels but METROPOLITAN boroughs receive CENTRAL FUNDING. Traditionally sport has been seen as LOW STATUS by UK politicians which has meant LOW PUBLIC FUNDING. This was because of the AMATEUR ETHOS. Recently, UK Sport has become more COMMERCIAL and BUSINESS orientated with politicians realising its VOTE WINNING power. This has led to more public funding and a drive to secure GLOBAL EVENTS such as LONDON 2012. Politicians view these as VOTE WINNING PRESTIGIOUS & FINANCIALLY REWARDING. The DCMS (Dept for Media, Culture & Sport) is the body of government responsible for sport & provides approximately £200m per annum and also decides how LOTTERY GRANTS are distributed to UK SPORT and the 4 SPORTS COUNCILS. Sports ADMINISTRATION is centralised and the bodies are SELF GOVERNING but central government contributes little in the way of POLICY

7. The USA: Commercialism in Comparison to the UK Professional sport in the USA is part of the ENTERTAINMENT business and is seen as a COMMODITY for the public. The USA is driven by the concept of CAPITALISM (a system which allows an individual to accumulate great wealth through INVESTMENT and OWNERSHIP). Capitalism has led to intensive COMMERCIALISM of sport. This is when a commodity is made available to be BOUGHT or SOLD for financial PROFIT. In this case: sport is the commodity. It has existed in American sports since the early 20th C. Capitalism affects all that happens in professional sport, college and high school sport. It also determines opportunities for outdoor education. Most Americans consume as SPECTATORS of sport through TV. The huge focus is on the BIG 4. The SUPER BOWL (NFL) is the biggest TV programme of the year. In the 1960s ROONE ARLEDGE revolutionised coverage by introducing SLOW-MO, ACTION REPLAY and increasing the number of CAMERAS. This encourages huge GROWTH. The AMATEUR ethos and PARTICIPATION focus meant that commercialism in the UK was DELAYED. Capitalism The Opportunity of the American Dream Competitive Ethic ‘Lombardianism’ Freedom Frontier Spirit

8. The USA: Commercialism in Comparison to the UK TV became available to the MASSES in the UK & USA in the 1950s. Britain was enduring a POST WAR AUSTERITY (Hardship). LEISURE TIME and DISPOSABLE INCOME was limited. Admission to sporting events (standing TERRACES) was INEXPENSIVE therefore ATTENDANCES were HUGE. Sporting events in the USA are largely SEATED events which led to SIDESHOW ENTERTAINMENT, and were more FAMILY ORIENTATED. TRAVEL to sport in the UK wasn’t a problem. It was in the USA which meant SPECTATORISM on TV was embraced much more. In the UK the BBC and ITV agreed 10 SPORTING EVENTS which must be covered to the nation by EITHER station. This compared to the TV REVOLUTION in the USA which embraced COMMERCIALISM. CULTURAL BORROWING is when an idea in one culture is copied and embedded into another culture. This occurred in 1988 by BRITISH SATELLITE BROADCASTING (BSkyB) further assisted by the 1990 BROADCASTING ACTwhich allowed EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS to cover the Premier League. This is now the only UK Sport which can COMPETE with the USA’s Big 4. The GOLDEN TRIANGLE is ever present in these sporting industries. Examples of the Golden Triangle & Sport • ITV Digital Collapse 2002 losing £200 million • RELEGATION now has a major financial impact. It is now not part of some sports (RUGBY LEAGUE) • Channel 4 & TWENTY20 • The RFU held out with AMATEURISM until mid 1990s. The PARIS DECLARATION embraced professionalism and commercialism • The BOSMAN RULING 1997 stated that professional footballers could command their own TRANSFERS when they were FREE AGENTS.

9. The USA: Social Determinants Affecting Sport SOCIAL FACTORS = How society is ORGANISED. CULTURAL FACTORS = are TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS & important SPORTS. MAINSTREAM culture is the majority. SEGREGATION and DISCRIMINATION can occur when one GROUP becomes detached from the mainstream • The USA has been DISCRIMINATORY on a SOCIAL level even though it states it is the LAND OF THE FREE. This is MIRRORED in sport. It affects sport in the areas of OPPORTUNITY (the CHANCE to participate) PROVISION (the RESOURCES to participate) & ESTEEM (the CONFIDENCE to participate) • The dominant social group is WASP (WHITE ANGLO-SAXON PROTESTANT). All other groups suffer discrimination on some level. The situation has CHANGED in the last 50 YEARS due to ROLE MODELS, LEGISLATION, & increased opportunity, provision & esteem. It is still evident however. USA Social VALUES: • PLURALISM: ALL Ethnic Minorities are TOLERATED & WELCOMED. USA states it is Pluralist. • THE AMERICAN DREAM: anyone regardless of background can be SUCCESSFUL through HARD WORK • LAND OF OPPORTUNITY: Linked to the DREAM. All people have the OPPORTUNITY for SOCIAL MOBILITY • LOMBARDIANISM: Winning isn’t everything, it is the only thing’ Win at all Costs Ethos! • ASSIMILATION: Identifying yourself and being accepted in a new culture. IMMIGRANTS were encouraged to do this in the USA • HEGEMONY: Culture in which one social group dominates. • The HEGEMONIC GROUP is SMALL but HUGELY INFLUENTIAL & WEALTHY. They are extreme CAPITALISTS and tend to be the MANAGERS of business / Sport. They decide the playing positions of the players • The PLURALIST GROUP is the majority of Americans and tend to be the PLAYERS in sport

10. The USA: Social Determinants Affecting Sport 3 Different Social ETHICS applied to both SPORT & RECREATION: • LOMBARDIAN ETHIC: Winning is the motive for participation in sport • RADICAL ETHIC: Winning is important but the method to attain success is most important • COUNTER CULTURE ETHIC: Winning is not important. Participation is the main motive for playing sport. This is an ANTI COMPETITIVE ETHIC & linked to ECO CULTURE Social Values in the UK: • Working as part of a TEAM has been a VALUE in the UK since the EMPIRE. This was reflected in Public Schools & TEAM GAMES. The USA on the other hand promotes INDIVIDUALISM & SELF SUFFICIENCY • The UK has a sense of FAIR PLAY. The PARTICIPATION ETHIC has traditionally had more importance than WINNING AT ALL COSTS • DISCRIMINATION is also evident in the UK. SPORT FOR ALL is not yet a reality. Social CLASS boundaries have hugely influenced this in the UK but this became less POWERFUL in the late 20th C. The dominant group is WHITE MIDDLE CLASS MALES. These have the most opportunity. Groups who suffer most discrimination are 1) YOUNG 2) ELDERLY 3) DISABLED 4) ETHNIC MINORITIES 5) WOMEN: ‘YEDEW’ • SPORT ENGLAND: The Government Agency for COMMUNITY SPORT attempts to address discrimination

11. The USA: PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SCHOOL SPORT OBESITY levels in countries in the developed world are a huge concern. The USA is experiencing major problems. 15% of USA children are CLINICALLY OBESE. 40 MILLION people are obese & 75% of Americans are not reaching basic exercise recommendations. The UK is not as severe but 38% are OVERWEIGHT, 25% are OBESE. The RECOMMENDATION in the UK is that CHILDREN should exercise for 1 HOUR of MODERATE activity every day. PE in the USA: Up until mid 1970s PE lessons were COMPULSORY for all ages. It is now not the case. MILITARY CONSCRITPION was abolished in 1970. After this the enforcement of PE become weaker. By 2000 only ILLINOIS was the only state to enforce it but it has since withdrawn it from being compulsory. This is because the state saves $16 million a year with PE as an optional subject. PE is considered an EXPENSIVE LUXURY. SCHOOL BOARDS is the authority that CONTROLS the school. They have eliminated it from curricula. PE is COMPULSORY in the UK until 16. The greatest decline in PE in the USA comes after primary school. 2001 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT: Was implemented to RAISE ACADEMIC standards. Subjects which were seen as non academic like PE were withdrawn from this point. The fall out is that 80% of children failed to meet minimum standards in the NATIONAL ‘FITNESSGRAM’ assessments. STRATEGIES to promote PE in the USA: The NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SPORT & PE (NASPE) believe that PE is the key to healthy lifestyles. They have INVESTED $60 million in PE FOR PROGRESS programme (PEP) with the aim of improving the 1) QUALITY & 2) QUANTITY of PE from KINDERGARTEN to GRADE 12 (UK Y13) TITLE IX: This is LEGISLATION that was passed in 1972 to address GENDER INEQUALITY in all areas of education. School’s will LOSE FUNDING. If they don’t comply. It intended to have a ZERO-SUM outcome. This is the ETHOS that the WINNER TAKES ALL & links directly with LOMBARDIANISM. Positives of the legislation are increased: 1) PARTICIPATION (Now 1:2.5 women participate. It used to be 1:27) 2) SCHOLARSHIPS 3) ELITE performers. CRITICS argue that it has taken away money from men and some male programmes. Additional LEGISLATION ensures that DISABLED can access PE in the form of ADAPTED PE PROGRAMMES. This ensures PROVISION & INCLUSION of the disabled.

12. The UK: PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SCHOOL SPORT STRATEGIESto promote PE in the UK: (4) 1) There is a NATIONAL CURRICULUM for PE in the UK which ensures that PE is COMPULSORY until the age of 16 & that schools cover 5 out of 6 activity areas. (GAMES, ATHLETICS, SWIMMING, OUTDOOR EDUCATION, DANCE, GYMNASTICS) 2) The PE SCHOOL SPORT & CLUBS LINKS STRATEGY (PESSCLS) was a Government strategy to PROMOTE PE & SCHOOL SPORT. It was launched in 2002. It changed to PESSYP (PE & SCHOOL SPORT & YOUNG PEOPLE) in 2008. The American PEP is not an equivalent but is supported FEDERALLY. PESSYP received £100 million per year. This strategy had 9 STRANDS: A) SPORTS COLLEGES B) SCHOOL’S SPORTS PARTNERSHIPS (SSPs): Schools work together as CLUSTERS C) PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT – Training for Teachers D) STEP INTO SPORT: Provides a clear FRAMEWORK for 14-19 year olds in sports LEADERSHIP E) CLUBS LINKS: To strengthen LINKS between SCHOOLS & CLUBS F) GIFTED & TALENTED: To help pupils who show ABILITY to develop G) SPORTING PLAYGROUNDS; The development of PRIMARY school playgrounds to promote activity H) SWIMMING: To increase provision in all schools. I) HIGH QUALITY PE & SPORT (PESS): Guidance for schools on how to improve the QUALITY of PE 3) KITEMARKING: A scheme to reward schools who best deliver the PESSYP strategy i) ACTIVEMARK (for PRIMARIES) ii) SPORTSMARK (for SECONDARY SCHOOLS) iii) SPORTS PARTNERSHIPMARK (for achievement across the School Sports Partnership) 4) HEALTHY LIVING SCHEMES: for Provision for DISABLED children

13. The USA: PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SCHOOL SPORT OUTDOOR EDUCATION: This is FORMAL process of teaching educational VALUES & skills in an NATURAL outdoor setting. The FRONTIER & COLONIAL LEGACY has led Americans to have a ‘LOVE OF THE OUTDOORS’. This has become part of the ‘American Dream’ & is HIGH STATUS in the USA. SUMMER CAMPS (or Camp Schools) have increased significantly since MID 20thC. These take place in the summer VACATION & last up to 8 WEEKS. There are over 12000 of which 8000 are RESIDENTIAL. There are 3 CLASSIFICATIONS: 1. STATE SPONSORED Camps; generally for LESS WEALTHY 2. BUSINESS, ETHNIC or RELIGIOUS Camps: 3. COMMERCIAL Camps: Often LAVISH & EXPENSIVE There are different TYPES which include ACADEMIC, & SELF IMPROVEMENT (Weight Loss). Camps have a PATRIOTIC CULTURE with a BUGLE sounding to start the day and the STARS & STRIPES unfurled. There are also CAMP FIRES which reflect PRIDE, a MILITARY ETHOS & the FRONTIER SPIRIT BENEFITS of Summer Camps: ‘PECCS KNIP’ 1. PHYSICAL 2. ENRICHMENT 3. CULTURAL 4. CHALLENGE 5. SELF DISCOVERY 6. KNOWLEDGE 7. NEW SKILLS 8. INDEPENDENCE 9. PROMOTE HABL (Healthy Active Balanced Lifestyle)

14. The USA: HIGH SCHOOL INTER-MURAL SPORT Whilst PE is LOW status INTER MURAL & INTER SCHOOL sport in the USA is STRONG. There is an emphasis on 3 of the BIG 4: BASKETBALL, AMERICAN FOOTBALL & BASEBALL. Despite Title 1X GIRLS tend not to play GRIDIRON but are involved in other sports. FACILITIES are excellent and are often open to the COMMUNITY. It is organised by the STATE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION (SSHAA). This is an ADVISORY board and has branches in each state. These receive no federal funding as schools FINANCE their OWN ATHLETIC programmes through ALUMNI (former students) donations, GATE RECEIPTS & GOLDEN TRIANGLE. The MISSION is that it benefits the whole education process. Schools are CLASSIFIED into 5 CONFERENCES dependent on NUMBER of students. SPECIALIST COACHES lead the teams. They are ACCOUNTABLE to the ATHLETICS DIRECTOR. There is a HIRE & FIRE CULTURE. High school sport is a direct REFLECTION of the PRO LEAGUES. Matches are played in STADIA with MARCHING BANDS, CHEERLEADERS & COMMUNITY support. College (University) SCHOLARSHIPS are offered to the best players so there is a LOMBARDIAN ethos. American culture is reflected. Inter Mural sports have HIGH STATUS because: 1. Centre of EXCELLENCE 2. SCHOLARSHIP incentive to best players 3. STADIA 4. Reflection of the PRO LEAGUES 5. COMMERCIALISM: Golden Triangle 6. HIRE & FIRE 7. Large CROWDS 8. LOMBARDIANISM

15. HIGH SCHOOL INTER-MURAL SPORT in the UK These are MATCHES, COMPETITIONS & LEAGUES. These can be organised by the SSCO (School Sports Coordinator) In 2008: Approximately 400,000 pupils take part. The government invested £2.4B to increase this to 2011. Its ETHOS is in CONTRAST to USA as it has LOW STATUS compared to PE. They lead to NATIONAL finals. An example would be Rugby Union’s DAILY MAIL U’15 & 18 competitions. There are very few CENTRES of EXCELLENCE schools. MILLFIELD is an example where SCHOLARSHIPS are awarded. NGBs select REPRESENTATIVE teams unlike the USA. The GOLDEN TRIANGLE does not exist. PE Teachers are heavily involved but have PERMANENT CONTRACTS The USA: HIGH SCHOOL INTRA-MURAL SPORT INTRAMURAL sports are RECREATIONAL sports which take place in high schools. There are LEAGUES and it does promote PARTICIPATION. It is INFORMAL. Eg: FLAG FOOTBALL. INITIATIVES to promote PE & SCHOOL SPORT in the USA: 1. TITLE 1X 2. STATE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION 3. PEP: Physical education for Progress 4. The NATIONAL INTRAMURAL RECREATION & SPORTS ASSOCIATION (NIRSA) organises recreation sport UK Intra Mural Sport: ORGANISED in a SIMILAR way to USA. Mainly in SECONDARY schools through ‘HOUSE’ competition such as SPORTS DAYS. It also has a RECREATION & PARTICIPATION focus but can be COMPETITIVE. Also organised by TEACHERS and played in PE lessons or EXTRA CURRICULAR

16. PARTICIPATION RATES MASS PARTICIPATION in the USA: In sports or PE it is LOW in the USA. Only 19% of adults participate. 60% are UNDER ACTIVE, but 40 million are members of HEALTH CLUBS. MEN are more likely to do this. INDIVIDUAL activities are more POPULAR than TEAM games. The degree of AFFLUENCE also significantly affects this. There has been a GYM & JOGGING CULTURE since the 1950s. YOUNG people take part more but rates DECREASE with AGE. FITNESS levels are a HUGE concern. Whilst trends are POSITIVE in the fitness industry Americans need to be MORE ACTIVE. In 2007 COLORADO was the only STATE with less than 20% OBESITY. MASS PARTICIPATION in the UK: 2007 participation had risen by 400,000 and 75% of people ENGAGE in physical activity (including WALKING). Rates are HIGHER than the USA. INDIVIDUAL activities show HIGHER rates than team. MEN participate more than women, although SWIMMING & FITNESS is more popular with WOMEN. YOUNG people participate MORE. WEALTH is important. If you are wealthy you are more likely PARTICIPATE. 1980: 200 GYMS in the UK 2008: Increased to 6000. This is the AMERICANISATION of GYM CULTURE.

17. STRATEGIES TO INCREASE PARTICIPATION RATES - UK: 1. SPORT ENGLAND: Promote mass participation 2. SPORTS MATCH GRANTS: Funded by Sports England for facility development 3. SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS: eg: Women (YEDEW) 4. NGBs: Receive CENTRAL funding to increase participation 5. Local SPORTS FOR ALL Initiatives: For community provision eg: Manchester 5-a-side Leagues 6. NATIONAL CURRICULUM for PE: 7. AMATEUR SPORTS CLUBS: This is a LONG TRADITION in the UK. Clubs have their own FACILITIES & organise teams on the basis of AGE, ABILITY & GENDER. They are mostly DOMINANT on ONE sport but can be more, FUNDED on a VOLUNTARY basis through SUBSCRIPTIONS. They may receive PRIVATE SPONSORSHIP or PUBLIC funding eg: LOTTERY grants STRATEGIES TO INCREASE PARTICIPATION RATES - USA: 1. PRIVATE CLUBS: They exist but tend to be EXCLUSIVE & FUNDED PRIVATELY. Eg: Golf, Tennis, Sailing The tradition of Amateur clubs does NOT exist in the USA. 2. CLUBS are formed through FRIENDSHIPS groups. These teams then create COMPETITIONS. The AMATEUR ATHLETIC UNION (AAU) is a national organisation which coordinates this. Eg: Softball, soccer, baton twirling. This also leads on the NATIONAL YOUTH FITNESS PROG. As part of the PRESIDENT’s CHALLENGE. 3. COMMUNITY PROVISION: MIDNIGHT Basketball Leagues established for ages 17-25 in 1986 playing games between 10pm and 2am and funded by LOCAL government. Players must also attend WORKSHOPS often linked to SOCIAL issues (DRUG abuse) Midnight Basketball Promotional Video – YouTube 4. LITTLE LEAGUES: These are for CHILDREN aged 7-16. TEAMS are coached by VOLUNTEERS (mainly PARENTS). They are very POPULAR. a) American Football (POP WARNER) b) BIDDY BASKETBALL c) PEE WEE BASEBALL. The LOMBARDIAN ethic is very strong and structure can reflect PRO leagues Eg: MINI SUPER BOWL

18. Draft Little League High School College Sport Pro Sport Scholarship PATHWAYS TO PROFESSIONAL SPORT The CONVENTIONAL (usual) route to sporting excellence in the USA is through the EDUCATION system. SCHOLARSHIPS are given by COLLEGES (University) to excellent HIGH SCHOOL sports people in most sports. Due to TITLE 1X they are available EQUALLY to MEN & WOMEN. The BIG 4 sports are a PROGRESSIVE step towards the PRO leagues. COMMERCIALISM is huge at college level through BUSINESS, SPONSORS, MEDIA. College sport is a HIGH STANDARD and ADMISSION price is also HIGH. College sport is ADMINISTERED by NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association). CONTROVERSIES: 1. Outstanding athletes issued scholarships without sufficient ACADEMIC ABILITY. This led to SPECIAL ADMIT PROGRAMMES: Academic PROGRAMMES are found that match the athletes NEEDS. 20% of scholarships are issued this way. 2. LOMBARDIAN ETHIC: Coaches apply too much PRESSURE which means academic performance suffers 3. HUGE SALARIES; of the COACHES & Athletics DIRECTORS. Students do not get paid 4. SCHOLARSHIPS are BINDING CONTRACTS and are only worth approximately $10,000. EXPLOITED athletes are seen as LABOURERS which make the coaches and colleges FINANCIALLY AFFLUENT. Students however do NOT COMPLAIN because a) OPPORTUNITY b) KUDOS & STATUS c) EXCITEMENT d) Team players CONFORM to discipline (Pragmatic Role Acceptance) e) SELF ESTEEM f) AMBITION g) Promise of the DRAFT (where the best pro clubs select the best college players) Task: The USA collegiate system can be viewed as a provider of opportunity or a system of exploitation. Discuss

19. PATHWAYS TO PROFESSIONAL SPORT in the UK OPPORTUNITY, PROVISION & ESTEEM are the 3 main factors which affect route to excellence in both the USA and the UK. UK SPORT: has overall responsibility for producing sporting EXCELLENCE. The AMBITION was to achieve 4th place at 2012. However an underlying theme is that International excellence can NO longer be TRUSTED to AMATEURS or VOLUNTEERS. There must now be a PROFESSIONAL approach SPORTS INSTITUTES: These are centres dedicated to providing SUPPORT to ELITE athletes. They underpin the SUCCESS of the OLYMPIC and PARALYMPIC teams. NON OLYMPIC sports are supported by their NGBs. It uses the NATIONAL LOTTERY to fund the programmes and not direct government funding. The SERVICES they support include; 1. COACHING 2. SPORTS SCIENCE & MEDICINE 3. PHYSIOTHERAPY 4. NUTRITION 5. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 6. LIFESTYLE ADVICE Task:

20. EQUALITY & DISCRIMINATION in the USA DISCRIMINATION: When perceived members of a group are PREJUDICED against. Multi Culturalism has not been achieved easily in the USA TOKENISM: When teams use a SMALL number of ETHNIC MINORITY athletes in order to give the appearance of being NON-DISCRIMINATORY. This happens in other walks of life. MLB was ‘white only’ until 1947. Tokenism occurred in MLB in the 1950s STACKING: Using PLAYERS of ETHNIC MINORITIES in PERIPHERAL POSITIONS. These often require ATHLETICISM and LIMITED STRATEGIC influence (Wide receivers in NFL) In MLB African Americans were also stacked into OUTFIELDpositions CENTRALITY: These are sporting positions with DECISION MAKING responsibilities. (Quarter Back in US Football or Pitcher in Baseball) WHITE FLIGHT: White players have withdrawn from basketball. It is increasingly PERCEIVED as belonging to AFRICAN AMERICANS GLASS CEILING: This term indicates the DIVISION between 2 LAYERS of society. Those beneath the glass can see their AMBITION but cannot break the BARRIER to get there. Outstanding ROLE MODELS have contributed to breaking through this; JESSE OWENS, MOHAMMED ALI, ALTHEA GIBSON (Wimbledon 1957), WILLIAMS SISTERS, TIGER WOODS. INTEGRATION has been gradual in the 20th C. 20% of MLB, 70% of NFL & 80% of NBA are now African American. Success of Ethnic Minorities depends on OPPORTUNITY, PROVISION & ESTEEM. Task:

21. THE BIG 4 SPORTS in the USA The BIG 4: BASEBALL, ICE HOCKEY, AMERICAN FOOTBALL & BASKETBALL. SOCCER is striving to be the 5th. It hasn’t achieved this as yet partly because of SPORTS SPACE. This is the concept that more PROMINENT sports will RESTRICT the development of less dominant sports. BASEBALL: Is the NATIONAL PASTIME & OBSESSION & became the most POPULAR by the 1950s. It developed as a WORKING CLASS game in the cities & wasn’t therefore played in SCHOOLS because parents DISAPPROVED. It is a SYMBOL of a DEFIANT YOUTH and was chose over cricket because its PACE reflected the fast pace of American life. The RAIL network helped spread the game and as PROFESSIONALISM grew the gentlemanly ETIQUETTE was lost. AFRICAN Americans were BANNED until 1947. The WORLD SERIES was INAUGURATED in 1903. MATCH FIXING scandal of 1920 (Chicago White Sox) disgraced the game. The NCAA manage COLLEGE baseball. The MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL (MLB) is massively COMMERCIALISED. AMERICAN FOOTBALL (GRIDIRON): It was ADAPTED from rugby and the ORIGINS lie in the IVY league colleges: notably PRINCETON, HARVARD & YALE. It was initially extremely PHYSICAL. 18 players DIED by 1905 which led to the PRESIDENT intervening. The FORWARD pass was developed which ISOLATED it from rugby. The SUPER BOWL is the show piece event & commands the HIGHEST TV audience in the USA. Commercials at HALF TIME can cost $2.5 Billion. The NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE (NFL) is massively COMMERCIALISED. BASKETBALL: INVENTED in 1891 by JAMES NAISMITH in Springfield’s YMCA. It was rooted in WHITE SCHOOLS but the PROFILE has changed hugely. The NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION (NBA) is massivelyCOMMERCIALISED& is worth 3.5 Billion and rising quickly. Michael Jordan during the 1990s was the highest PAID athlete in the world. It is FAST, HIGH SCORING and COMMERCIAL friendly ICE HOCKEY: Not as popular & ADOPTED from Canada. NCAA started leagues in 1948 but PROFESSIONAL leagues (NATIONAL HOCKEY LEAGUE: NHL) were formed in 1904. This encompasses USA & Canada. The STANLEY CUP is the show piece. It has huge COMMERCIAL value

22. The increasing COMMERCIALISM of sport in the UK Sport was developed in the UK to serve INTRINSIC benefits of the participants. SPECTATORS have always been drawn to the sport but the COMMERCIAL possibilities were being INTRODUCED & USED by the USA long before the UK. The UK is still some way behind and only ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL can rival the Big 4 in ECONOMIC terms. COMMERCIALISM has been COPIED not only by the UK but GLOBALLY. This is called the AMERICANISATION of sport. MONEY is made from TICKET SALES, MERCHANDISE, MEDIA RIGHTS, SATELLITE TV DEALS. Commercial BREAKS last much LONGER in the USA and fit into sport. American FRANCHISE systems have been copied. The LOMBARDIAN ETHIC is becoming more prevalent as has the ABOLITION of RELEGATION & PROMOTION in some sports (RUGBY LEAGUE) Task: Discuss the extent to which the UK is adopting the approach of the USA in commercial sport

23. A2 PE COMPARATIVE STUDIES: Australia

24. AUSTRALIA: A Cultural Context Australia is believed to have a SPORTING OBSESSION. Physical activity is a major PRIORITY. Cultural aspects include: HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, POLITICAL, SOCIAL, COMMERCIAL, ECONOMIC, TRADITIONAL & IDEOLOGICAL HISTORICAL: Australia began as PENAL COLONY in 1788 from the UK. The prisoners were POMS (Prisoners Of the Motherland) CRIMINALS were transported to PORT JACKSON (modern day Sydney). CONVICTS or FREE SETTLERS and MILITARY PERSONELL settled there. CHILDREN of convict settlers were known as CURRENCY and PROUDLY claimed to be the 1st GENERATION of NATIVE BORN Australians despite many DISADVANTAGES. Free settlers who were born in Britain were called STERLING to highlight their WEALTH and were considered SUPERIOR to CURRENCY. But because of the OUTDOOR lifestyle, good DIET and hard LABOUR the currency children grew STRONGER & HEALTHIER. They were known as CORNSTALKS in comparison to the pale WEAKER Sterling children. UK SPORTS were readily ACCEPTED and CRICKET games between the ‘Currency CORNSTALKS’ and the STERLING or MILITARY were common. BETTING was popular and any currency VICTORY was massively CELEBRATED and was seen as VICTORY against the Motherland. This was a FORE RUNNER to modern day Australian PATRIOTISM. WINNING was therefore more important than taking part. From the MID 19th C Australian SPORT followed closely the developments in the UK and was thought to develop CHARACTER, MANLINESS & build social VALUES. Intense RIVALRY grew between the two countries and SUCCESS by Australia against British teams was the BENCHMARK of NATIONAL PROGRESS. However RECENTLY this has turned to GLOBAL achievements. Sport is a REFLECTION of an ENERGETIC YOUNG culture. It shows SPIRIT and NATIONAL PRIDE

25. AUSTRALIA: A Cultural Context GEOGRAPHICAL: Australia is 32 times LARGER than the UK. LARGE distances separate major cities which has impacted on the DEVELOPMENT of SPORT. The INACCESSIBILITY of travel was known as the TYRANNY OF DISTANCE. In the early development of sport teams travelled to games by BOAT. Even now the sports INSTITUTES are built in every STATE to ease travel. There are 4 TOPOGRAPHICAL terrains: 1) LOW SANDY EASTERN PLAINS 2) EASTERN HIGHLANDS which is MOUNTAINOUS and can host WINTER sports 3) CENTRAL PLAINS: FLAT INHOSPITABLE scrubland popular for BUSH WALKING and TREKKING 4) The WESTERN PLATEAU which compromises DESERT and ROCKY WASTE LAND. 40% of Australian land mass is DESERT The CLIMATE is DIVERSE. The Eastern seaboard has WARM SUMMERS and MILD WINTERS. This affects sports PARTICIPATION and EXCELLENCE. In the North there are TROPICAL conditions. There is a significant ARID DESERT climate across the country. URBANISATION: Australia is an URBAN environment but only has a population of 22 MILLION. Nearly 18 million (80%) live on the EASTERN SEA BOARD. This has led to a BEACH culture. Thousands of UKIMMIGRANTS from 1945 to 1965 were given SUBSIDIES to ‘enjoy a better life DOWN UNDER’. Population DENSITY is LOW. 7 people for every square mile, but this grows in the CITY as it is very concentrated. TRANSPORT: from the MID 20TH C an excellent transport NETWORK developed, to include RAIL, AIR & ROAD

26. AUSTRALIA: A Cultural Context POLITICAL: Australia gained INDEPENDENCE in 1901 and has a FEDERAL parliament based in CANBERRA the capital city. It is still part of the COMMONWEALTH and the MONARCH of England is the CHIEF OF STATE. There are 3 LEVELS of Government: • CENTRAL: this is FEDERAL government. Sport is administered through the ASC (Australian Sports Commission) which is active in MASS PARTICIPATION and the pursuit of EXCELLENCE • STATE or TERRITORY: Each state has AUTONOMY from central government in a DECENTRALISED system. EG: EDUCATION is the responsibility of each state and there isn’t a NATIONAL CURRICULUM • LOCAL: This looks different in each state because of the decentralisation COMMERCIALISM: major professional sports in Australia are HIGHLY COMMERCIALISED. This started in earnest in the 1970s when AUSSIE RULES, RUGBY LEAGUE & CRICKET used TV RIGHTS to increase INCOME. In 1977 KERRY PACKER started a WORLD SERIES CRICKET format. The sport then became BIG BUSINESS. The GOLDEN TRIANGLE is huge. PAY TV was introduced in 1995 and sport became a CORPORATE COMMODITY (Sport could be bought by the CONSUMER). Controversy ensued in the MID 1990s when PACKER (Australian Rugby League) rivalled RUPERT MURDOCH (Super League) for control of the restructuring of RUGBY LEAGUE. The low population meant this was UNSUSTAINABLE and Super League disbanded within a year. ASSOCIATION FOOTBA LL’s popularity is INCREASING dramatically because of the commercial attitude of the governing body

27. AUSTRALIA: A Cultural Context SOCIAL: As with the UK & USA certain GROUPS find it difficult to PARTICIPATE in sport because of DISCRIMINATION. ACCESS is restricted by OPPORTUNITY PROVISION & ESTEEM. The ASC develops SPORT FOR ALL programmes to combat this. The ABORIGINES are the INDIGENOUS people, account for 2% of the population, have a LOW LIFE EXPECTANCY but they have a HIGH representation in sports such as RUGBY LEAGUE BOXING & AFL. WHITE settlers took their LAND and possessions even though they did not show hostility to BRITISH. There standard of living is below MAINSTREAM Australia. The Australian government adopted a WHITE ONLY POLICY to control the population COMPOSITION. This was WITHDRAWN in 1971 and from this point Australia was committed to MULTI CULTURALISM. In 2007 the PRIME MINISTER apologised for the CRIMES committed against the Aboriginal people. The ASC implemented the INDIGENOUS SPORTS PROGRAMME to address under representation in sport. They also try to increase ACCESS through OPPORTUNITY PROVISION & ESTEEM in YEDEW (Young Elderly, Disabled, Ethnic Minorities and Women) GENDER: The FRONTIER attitude of early colonialism established MALE DOMINATION and led to serious DISCRIMINATION against WOMEN. When the MEDIA portrayed sports stars as FEMININE they thrived but often women haven’t been. The ASC now has a WOMEN & SPORT UNIT. Participation is still however LOW The first settlers experienced HARDSHIP and developed a BUSH CULTURE (a positive approach to facing hardships). A sense of COMMUNITY developed because of this. 19TH C GOLD RUSHES attracted thousands and Australia became a SOCIAL MELTING POT. This population developed a strong EGALITARIAN (Equal) ETHOS in which SOCIAL CLASS was eliminated. It then portrayed itself as ‘The LAND OF THE FAIR GO’ (J D Lang). The LEGACY of the Bush Culture remains in COMPETITVE SPORT

28. AUSTRALIA: PE & SCHOOL SPORT VICTORIA – A CASE STUDY: PRIORITY for local government is PARTICIPATION not excellence. PE is COMPULSORY until 16 but 65% of school PUPILS participate OUTSIDE of school hours. Most POPULAR sports are ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL for boys & NETBALL for girls but COMBINED it is SWIMMING. 50% TRAIN at least ONCE per week. Victoria is INNOVATIVE in the promotion of HEALTH ACTIVE LIFESTYLES. • GO FOR YOUR LIFE scheme: linked to healthy EATING & increase PARTICIPATION • SEPEP (Sport Education & PE Programmes): This is COMPULSORY for pupils in Victoria up to Y10. There are 8 CORE AREAS of the CURRICULUM and it focuses on GAMES STRATEGY, COMPETITION, EXCELLENCE PATHWAYS, & PARTICIPATION. The PE programme is also concerned with PARTICIPATION and the learning of BASIC MOTOR SKILLS such as RUNNING, JUMPING. It is delivered in 100 MINUTES PER WEEK and FUNDED by the ASC. • ACTIVE AUSTRALIA:A sport for all initiative at GRASS ROOTS level for SKILL, FITNESS & PARTICIPATION • PASE (Physical & Sport Education): This is the TRAINING of NON SPECIALIST teachers so that they can LEAD SPORTING activities in the schools. It is DELIVERED and FINANCED by ACHPER (Australian Council for Health PE and Recreation) • EXEMPLARY SCHOOLS: These are schools with OUTSTANDING PE Departments. The staff SWAP their GOOD PRACTICE with other schools. • FSP (Fundamental Skills Programme): This is COMPULSORY PE for PRIMARY pupils and its purpose is to TEACH 11 MOTOR SKILLS so that PARTICIPATION will increase • SPORTS LEADERS PROGRAMMES: This is to encourage OLDER pupils to COACH, OFFICIATE or LEAD. • STATE AWARD SCHEMES: In Victoria there are 2 types a) STATE BLUE awarded for ATTAINMENT & FAIR PLAY and b) DE COUBERTIN award for NON PLAYING roles in state sport • SPORT LINKAGE SCHEME: developing LINKS between SCHOOLS & CLUBS to share FACILITIES/COACHES • SPORTS PERSON in SCHOOLS PROJECT: ELITE athlete links to SCHOOLS to act as ROLE MODELS • SPORTS SEARCH: Computer programme which ADVISES pupils of their best SPORT to start

29. AUSTRALIA: PE & SCHOOL SPORT 12. TEACHER GAMES: These are RESIDENTIAL COMPETITIVE weekends for teachers with a view to INCREASING COLLABORATION between schools 13. PACIFIC SCHOOL GAMES: Held in MELBOURNE every 4 YEARS involving 3000 ABLE BODIED & DISABLED PRIMARY & SECONDARY pupils. A MINI Olympics 14. OUTDOOR EDUCATION: This is HEAVILY promoted and supported by OUTSTANDING NATURAL ENVIRONMENT. It is promoted because: • CLIMATE is favourable (including SKIING) • Associated with HABL (Healthy Active Balanced Lifestyle) • BUSH CULTURE promoted • EXAMINED • PATRIOTIC / NATIONALISM • SURVIVAL skills taught • DUKE OF EDINBURGH

30. AUSTRALIA: MASS PARTICIPATION ADULT PARTICIPATION RATES:In 2007 65% claimed to participate. More MEN participate than WOMEN. 33% belonged to CLUBS. 15% are SEDENTARY. WALKING & AEROBICS are the most popular activities. Australia is facing HEALTH PROBLEMS. In 2007 60% were OVER WEIGHT and 21% were OBESE compared to 60% and 25% respectively in the UK. 70% of CHILDREN were ACTIVE for 60 MINUTES a day. This is DECLINING.This has led to INTERVENTION at FEDERAL level further kick started by the FAILURE of the 1976 MONTREAL OLYMPICS ‘DISASTER’ – No medals gained. This led to the establishment of the ASC. ASC’s ROLES: To increases PARTICIPATION at GRASS ROOTS level especially in YEDEW. The ‘MORE ACTIVE AUSTRALIA’ is a sports for all initiative to promote this funded by ASC to increases MEMBERSHIP of CLUBS • To promote EXCELLENCE and develop the AIS (Australian Institutes of Sport) as centres ofEXCELLENCE • To enhance Australia’s LEADERSHIP in a GLOBAL sense • To increase the ADOPTION of FAIR PLAY, SELF IMPROVEMENT & ACHIEVEMENT AUSSIE SPORT: Developed in 1986. It MODIFIED the RULES of activities to become CHILD FRIENDLY. By 1995 100% of PRIMARY schools used it. COACHING courses and SPORTS COORDINATORS were introduced and Australia is seen as WORLD LEADER in modified games. In 2000 the name changed to JUNIOR SPORT PROGRAMME. Other INITIATIVES include • The 10 PE strategies in SEPEP • SCHOOL SPORT NETWORK: This is an ADVISORY support network for staff • ACTIVE AFTER SCHOOL COMMUNITIES PROG: for extra curricular sports • LOCAL SPORTING CHAMIONS: FINANCIAL support for TEENAGERS • BLUE EARTH PROGRAMME: a FITNESS & MOTOR SKILLS initiative

31. AUSTRALIA: SPORT & THE PURSUIT OF EXCELLENCE AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF SPORT: The country is hugely focused on increasing MASS PARTICPATION but it is EQUALLY concentrated on increasing EXCELLENCE. There are CLEAR NETWORKS to develop INTERNATIONAL level athletes. The AIS are the most IMPORTANT. They were established after the OLYMPIC FAILURES in MONTREAL 1976 and in the COMMONWEALTH GAMES in EDMONTON in 1978. PUBLIC opinion demanded a SOLUTION. STRUCTURE of the AIS: The main centre is BASED in CANBERRA and it OPENED in 1981. It is FUNDED by the FEDERAL GOVERNMENT which allocates money to the ASC and they DISTRIBUTE it to the various AIS. Each STATE has an AIS. They also receive FUNDING from STATE government, and from SPONSORS. EG: VICTORIA AIS receives 50 sponsors. There are 9 STATE AIS in total based in CANBERRA SYDNEY (x 2) MELBOURNE ADELAIDE PERTH LAUNCESTON BRISBANE DARWIN and they are DESIGNED to allow athletes to train in their LOCALITY in 26 different SPORTS. They are PERCEIVED as sport FINISHING schools 7 FUNCTIONS of the AIS: • The MAJOR function is to SPONSOR • & SUPPORT athletes with OUTSTANDING POTENTIAL to become WORLD CLASS ELITE performers. SCHOLARSHIPS are awarded to athletes NOMINATED by CLUBS. • To provide world class FACILITIES • To provide world class COACHING • To provide world class COMPETITION • MEDICAL support • EDUCATIONAL & CAREER support

32. AUSTRALIA: THE PURSUIT OF EXCELLENCE in different SPORTS AUSSIE RULES FOOTBALL: The NGB is the AFL (Australian Football League) and they RECRUIT players through the a DRAFTsystem which BALANCES team strengths from season to season. Some teams adopt a TANKING strategy which means fielding WEAKENED teams towards the end of the season so as to finish BOTTOM and gain 1st PICK RUGBY LEAGUE: There are 2 ROUTES. 1) Through the AIS 2) Through ELITE development with the CLUB ACADEMY. A scheme called KIDS TO KANGEROOS is an initiative to provide COMPETITION between STATES for TALENTED youngsters. In addition the UNDER 18 TOYOTA CUP is a NATIONAL youth competition. Rugby League DOES NOT operate a DRAFT system CRICKET: Is HUGELY important to Australians and is massively supported by AIS UK: The agency known as UK SPORT is RESPONSIBLE for EXCELLENCE. The AMBITION was 4thplace at LONDON 2012. The OLYMPICS of ATLANTA 1996 was a turning point for the nation as there was PUBLIC OUTCRY at the lack of SUCCESS. Huge improvements have been made since. It is FUNDED by the NATIONAL LOTTERY and government SUBSIDIES. UK SPORTS INSTITUTES: These are DIRECT COPIES of the Australian networks. There are 4 and they are DECENTRALISED. 1. EIS: (English) 2. SINI (Sports Institute of Northern Ireland) 3. SIS: Scotland Institute of Sport 4. WIS: Welsh Institute of Sport The UK GOVERNMENT is NOT directly involved with sporting POLICY however in Australia the ASC is heavily involved

33. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of Cricket CRICKET in Australia is different because it is LIGHTER and the GROUND is HARDER which means a more ATTACKING game. Huge RIVALRY has always existed between ENGLAND v AUSTRALIA. Initially cricket was a way of UNIFYING the YOUNG NATION against the MOTHERLAND. VICTORY was a BENCHMARK of NATIONAL PROGRESS. The term TEST MATCH was first used during the England TOUR in 1861. The first official TEST was played in 1876. ASHES MYTHOLOGY: This was after the FIRST Australian VICTORY in 1882. The newspaper THE SPORTING TIMES ran a MOCK OBITUARY stating the DEATH of English cricket. It has grown into the MAJOR RIVALRY in the modern game. 1932 BODYLINE SERIES: England used UNFAIR tactics against DON BRADMAN and his team by BOWLING at the body. It almost led to a DIPLOMATIC incident between the 2 countries. 1977 WORLD SERIES of CRICKET; Kerry PACKER introduced a COMMERCIAL version of cricket which attracted major PLAYERS through big FINANCIAL packages and took control AWAY from the ICB. It included INNOVATIONS such as FLOOD LIGHTS, COLOURED KITS and intensified PROFESSIONALISM. Throughout the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st C the NATIONAL team was hugely SUCCESSFUL winning the WORLD CUP in 2007. They also DOMINATED TWENTY20 and TEST matches. Cricket in the UK; Cricket developed in the UK in line with BRITISH VALUES such as TEAM WORK, HONESTY and DIGNITY, but it also reflected the DISCRIMINATION of the English CLASS system. The MCC (Marylebone Cricket Club) are the RULING body and are based at LORDS which is considered the HOME of cricket. Cricket in Australia is a DIRECT COPY of the English game but there are some differences relating to SOCIAL CLASS. The UPPER class are heavily represented and the game grew through PUBLIC schools such as ETON. 2TYPES of player emerged 1) The AMATEUR (upper class). These players were mainly BATSMEN 2) The PROFESSIONAL (working class) These players were mainly BOWLERS. They also ENTERED the PITCH from different ROOMS. Australia was openly CRITICAL of this.

34. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of Cricket

35. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of RUGBY LEAGUE RUGBY LEAGUE in Australia is MORE POPULAR than Rugby UNION but it is PREDOMINANTLY played in 2 STATES: QUEENSLAND and NEW SOUTH WALES. Melbourne STORM (in Melbourne South Australia is an example of a FRANCHISE outside of the normal HEARTLAND of RL for COMMERCIAL reasons. 1907 BREAK AWAY from Rugby Union; This followed the same process in England. Players were now allowed to be PAID for BROKEN WORK TIME. It is a WORKING CLASS game. COMMERCIALISM; Attendances have fluctuated over the DECADES but the game has been INNOVATIVE in reinventing itself for MASS APPEAL. The STATE OF ORIGIN game between players from NEW SOUTH WALES v QUEENSLAND generated huge INTEREST. Each CLUB has an ACADEMY team because a DRAFT system does NOT operate. In the UK Rugby League is ASSOCIATED with LANCASHIRE and YORKSHIRE but Rugby Union is a MORE POPULAR game. League broke away from Union in 1895 to form the NORTHERN UNION in response to BROKEN TIME PAYMENTS. Players in the WORKING CLASS North worked on SATURDAY afternoons and so had to take TIME OFF work to play. The RULES were CHANGED to attract HIGHER ATTENDANCES. This move created DIVISION between the 2 CODES which existed for most of the 20th C. The first INTERNATIONAL match was held between England and Australia in 1908 and IMITATED cricket, calling them TEST MATCHES. COMMERCIALISM has been used in developing ORIGIN games between LANCASHIRE & YORKSHIRE and FRANCHISES have been established to create teams in LONDON FRANCE and WALES. In 1996 the game changed SEASONS by moving to become a SUMMER sport in line with RUPERTMURDOCH’s SUPER LEAGUE in Australia. Teams now have commercial names EG: LEEDS RHINOS. In 2009 RL decided to copy USA and abolish RELEGATION . The UK GRAND FINAL is a direct COPY of the Australian COMPETITION.

36. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of RUGBY UNION RUGBY UNION was established in 1845 but the GOVERNING body was not formed until 1871. In the UK its ROOTS are in the PUBLIC SCHOOLS and in the 20th C in the GRAMMAR Schools. This led to OLD BOYS ASSOCIATIONS. Most STATE SECONDARY MODERN schools in the NORTH however played Rugby LEAGUE. In AUSTRALIA Rugby Union was SIMILARLY played in the ELITE PRIVATE schools of QUEENSLAND and NEWSOUTH WALES. It has a STRONG MIDDLE CLASS AMATEUR ETHOS and fixtures until the 1990s were FRIENDLIES reflecting AMATEURISM. The UK also followed this ETHOS until the MID 1990S. 1995 PARIS DECLARATION; Due to the growing COMMERCIAL power of Rugby UNION global rugby decided to break with TRADITION and embrace COMMERCIALISM in the sport. The ENGLISH RFU were completed SHOCKED by this and reluctantly ACCEPTED. Since then the game has developed GLOBALLY to include; WORLD CUP, 6 NATIONS (Northern Hemisphere), The Rugby CHAMPIONSHIP (Southern Hemisphere), EUROPEAN CUP, SUPER 14. The LAWS of the game have also been MODIFIED to make it QUICKER and more appealing. The GOLDEN TRIANGLE has been EMBRACED and the flow of players from one code to another has now REVERSED. More RL players transfer to Union these days

37. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL did NOT transfer well to Australia because it was played only by the UK IMMIGRANTS and was seen as a POMMIE game. Play was very PHYSICAL and was seen as a THREAT to be the DOMINANT game therefore this FEAR ensured it was REJECTED. SPORTS SPACE became a convenient excuse for this. EUROPEAN immigrants after WORLD WAR 2 brought their own STYLE and often involved GAMESMANSHIP tactics such as DIVING and SHIRT PULLING. This brought NEGATIVE publicity. STANDARDS of play was NOT HIGH. In 1951 England beat Australia 17-0. It remained the MAIN sport for the European immigrant working class and they tended to LIVE together in GHETTOS. Communities often called their TEAMS after their HERITAGE. EG; MELBOURNE CROATIA. This however led to RACIAL RIVALRY. ‘SOCCERS’ INCREASING POPULARITY; During the LATE 20thit has undergone a major change. It is now a MAJOR Australian game. There are 10 FACTORS why this has happened; ‘GP MESSAGES’ • GOVERNMENT; Intervention by the Australian Govt. into the GOVERNANCE of the game changed it • PARTICIPATION; There are 1 MILLION players and it is the FASTEST growing sport • MEDIA; The NATIONAL league has sparked POSITIVE MEDIA interest • EXCELLENCE; The game is now supported by the AIS and a new YOUTH league has developed • SPONSORSHIP; LUCRATIVE deals have developed from media interest • SUCCESS; Against England in 2003 and 2006 WORLD CUP. Also accepted to ASIAN CONFERENCE which means more chance of QUALIFICATION for world cups • AMBITION; It bid to HOST the 2018 WORLD CUP. • GOVERNING BODY; The FFA (Football Federation of Australia) was ESTABLISHED to PROMOTE the game • ETHNICITY; ETHNIC TEAM names ABOLISHED. EG; Sydney HELLAS (Greek) became Sydney KNIGHTS • STRUCTURE; In 2002 a NATIONAL LEAGUE was set up by the FFA

38. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL and the FOOTBALL ASSOCIATION (The FA) was founded in the UK in 1863. It started as an AMATEUR organisation and had its ORIGINS in English PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The FA RELUCTANTLY accepted PROFESSIONALISM in 1888 and formed the FOOTBALL LEAGUE. The game very quickly became DOMINATED by WORKING CLASS players. This was DIFFICULT to SUSTAIN in Australia . In the UK there was EASY ACCESS to MATCHES because of the RAIL network but a TYRANNY OF DISTANCE existed in AUSTRALIA. WAGES in the UK were relatively HIGH. In 1939 it was TWICE that of a TRADESMAN. This GAP closed but in 1961 the Football League ABOLISHED the MAXIMUM WAGE. Players could now be paid what the CLUB wanted to pay them. The POPULARITY of the game and the WAGES grew following the WORLD CUP VICTORY in 1966. WAGES in Australia could NOT be supported like this. 1988 BRITISH SATELLITE BROADCASTING began followed by the 1990 BROADCASTING ACT which led to the creation of BSKYB who paid £3 MILLION for EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS to TELEVISE the PREMIER LEAGUE. It is now HUGE BUSINESS and the PREMIER league and the GOLDEN TRIANGLE are inextricably LINKED. 1997 BOSMAN RULING; Players could command their OWN FEES from a TRANSFER and became FREEAGENTS at the end of their CONTRACTS

39. AUSTRALIA: A Case Study of AUSTRALIAN RULES FOOTBALL AUSTRALIAN RULES FOOTBALL (Aussie Rules) developed in MELBOURNE and the state of VICTORIA but has now branched out to be known as the country’s NATIONAL SPORT. There is strong EVIDENCE to state that this is a TRULY AUSTRALIAN game. Allegedly TOM WILLS watched ABORIGINALS playing a LEAPING game and COMBINED this with ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOLS football. It was CODIFIED in 1858. The game is affectionately known as ‘FOOTY’ The MOTTO is ‘The Game of the People for the People’. It is SYNONYMOUS with ETHNIC and CULTURALDIVERSITY. There are 5 REASONS for its APPEAL; ‘GECCO’ • GENDER; FEMALE participation is massively encouraged. Many WOMEN hold significant POSITIONS in ADMINISTRATION and OFFCIATING • ETHNICITY; The CORNSTALKS brought the MANLY BUSH CULTURE to the sport. IRISH immigrants were TOUGH and RUGGED. Ethnic EUROPEANS also merged into the game from the 1950s and ABORIGINALS are very well REPRESENTED • CLASS; There is an EGALITARIAN ethos for both the PLAYER and the SPECTATOR. The game reflects that Australia is the LAND OF THE FAIR GO • COMMERCIALISM; The game reaches similar levels of COMMERCIALISM as SOCCER in the UK • ORIGIN; It is seen as a TRULY Aussie game encompassing IRISH ABORIGINAL and ENGLISH influences. It was first DESIGNED as NON AGGRESSIVE and as a sport to enable CRICKETERS to KEEP FIT in the WINTER. The game is played on a PITCH the same size as a cricket OVAL

40. A2 PE Exercise Physiology

41. Exercise PhysiologyEnergy

42. ENERGY CONCEPTS • CHEMICAL ENERGY: Plants convert SUNLIGHT into energy which is stored within the BONDS of chemical COMPOUNDS or MOLECULES. This is then passed to HUMANS in the form of FOOD. It is stored as CHO, PROTEIN or FATS. We then further store this energy in a HIGH ENERGY compound called ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE (ATP). ATP can be immediately used as energy by the body. Energy found between the bonds of ATP is called .... • POTENTIAL ENERGY: This is when energy is ready to use, for example ready for muscles to CONTRACT. This energy is then called … • KINETIC ENERGY: which is energy in the form of MOVEMENT. • ENERGY is the ability to perform WORK or put MASS into MOTION. In human terms it means contracting muscles for physical activity. It is measured in JOULES (J) which is equivalent to 10 NEWTONs force or 1Kg acting over a distance of 1 metre. It can also be measured in CALORIES and this is equivalent to 4.18 Joules. • WORK is when a FORCE is applied to a body to move it over a distance. WORK = FORCE (N) X DISTANCE MOVED (M) measured in Joules • POWER is the RATE at which WORK can be done. It is work divide by time. POWER = WORK / TIME or (FORCE (N) x DISTANCE (M)) / TIME (secs) The UNITS are WATTS (W). Force X Distance = PURE STRENGTH

43. ADENOSINE TRI PHOSPHATE (ATP) • ATP is made up of a complex element called ADENOSINE and three simple elements called PHOSPHATEs (P). These elements are held together by BONDS which are HIGH ENERGY bonds. An ENZYME called ATPase breaks the bonds between 2 of the Phosphates. When it does this it releases ENERGY which is used for muscular CONTRACTIONS. This is an EXOTHERMIC reaction because it RELEASES ENERGY as it progresses. • The COMPOUND which is left is called ADENOSINE DI PHOSPHATE (ADP). If there is no ATP present then energy for work is not possible. The body only has a LIMITED CAPACITY to store ATP. It can only last for 2 to 3 SECONDS of work. After this time the body has to find a way of RE-SYNTHESISING ADP back into ATP again. It has lost a Phosphate. ADP must find another to REBUILD it an become reusable. This is an ENDOTHERMIC REACTION because energy is REQUIRED from somewhere to progress. • The body has 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS with which to re-synthesise ADP to ATP. • The ATP / PC SYSTEM • The LACTIC ACID SYSTEM • The AEROBIC SYSTEM • Each system uses energy from one reaction to use in another reaction. This is called a COUPLED REACTION

44. ENERGY SYSTEMS • The 3 Energy Systems that re-synthesise ATP from ADP are the 1) ATP/PC system 2) Lactic Acid System 3) Aerobic Energy System • When ATP levels fall and ADP levels rise an ENZYME called CREATINE KINASE is released and this breaks the PC bond in an EXOTHERMIC reaction. This energy is used to re-synthesise ATP from ADP in an ENDOTHERMIC reaction • The ATP / PC system can work ANAEROBICALLY as well as AEROBICALLY but it does NOT require 02. It takes place in the SARCOPLASM of the cell. However it can only supply enough PC to re-synthesise ADP to ATP for 3 to 10 seconds during MAXIMAL intensity. In recovery, Creatine and Phosphate (Pi) are RE-SYNTHESISED back to PC TRAINING ADAPTATIONS: Anaerobic Training overloads the ATP / PC system and increases the muscle’s ATP and PC stores which delays the THRESHOLD between using this system and the Lactic Acid System by 2 secs ADVANTAGES: No 02, Quickly Available, Quick Reaction, Explosive, Powerful, No Fatiguing By Products, PC re-synthesised quickly DISADVANTAGES: Stores are small, 1 PC re-synthesises ONLY 1ATP, Only energy for 8 – 10 secs

45. ENERGY SYSTEMS 2) The LACTIC ACID SYSTEM: This system uses GLYCOGEN to re-synthesise ADP back to ATP. The energy released through breaking down glucose is used to do this. This is also a COUPLED and ENDOTHERMIC reaction. Glucose is CHO in the body and when it is stored it is called GLYCOGEN. The decrease in PC stores activates the ENZYME GLYCOGEN PHOSPHORYLASE which breaks down the glycogen into glucose. It is then further broken down into PYRUVIC ACID in a process called GLYCOLYSIS. The process takes place in the SARCOPLASM, does not require 02 and is called ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS. This process releases 2 ATP from one glucose molecule During Glycolysis the ENZYME PHOSPHOFRUKTIKINASE (PFK) causes Pyruvic Acid but without 02 present this breaks down further into LACTIC ACID by the ENZYME LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDH). This process re-synthesises energy for 2 – 3 minutes of high intensity exercise but if activity is MAXIMAL it will only last 30 seconds ADVANTAGES: Relatively QUICK, no 02 required, Glycogen readily available, Re-synethises 2 ATP from 1 glucose molecule DISADVANTAGES: OBLA, Inhibition of ENZYMES due to lower Ph, increased FATIGUE, stimulates PAIN receptors. TRAINING ADAPTATIONS: Overloading this system will increase LACTATE BUFFER and delay OBLA

46. ENERGY SYSTEMS • The AEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEM: This has 3 stages to re-synthesise ATP. All 3 systems require 02 to break down 1 molecule of Glucose STAGE 1: AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS: This is the same process as anaerobic glycolysis but instead the presence of 02 INHIBITS the accumulation of LACTIC ACID. The 02 uses PYRUVIC ACID and this combines with ‘CoENZYME A’ to become ‘ACETYL CoENZYME A’. This takes place in the SARCOPLASM. STAGE 2: KREB’s CYCLE: The ‘ACETYL CoENZYME A’ now combines with OXALOACETIC ACID to form CITRIC ACID in the MITOCHONDRIA. This is then broken down to produce 4 EVENTS 1) C02 is produced and removed 2) HYDROGEN ATOMS are removed (Oxidation) 3) OXALOACETIC ACID is regenerated which is used again 4) Energy is produced to re-synthesise 2 ATP STAGE 3: The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC): HYDROGEN ATOMS released in Stage 2 combines with CoENZYMES NAD and FAD to form NADH and FADH. These are carried down the ETC where HYDROGEN is split into HYDROGEN IONS (H+) and HYDROGEN ELECTRONS (e-). This takes place in the MITOCHONDRIA and 3 EVENTS follow 1) e- split from the atom and pass down the ETC 2) This provides ENERGY to synthesise 34 ATP 3) H+ combines with 02 to form water (H20)

47. ENERGY SYSTEMS ADAVANTAGES: large GLYCOGEN & FFA stores, 02 supply Large synthesis, High DURATION (3 mins to 1 hr), No fatiugingBY PRODUCTS (C02/H20) DISADVANTAGES: Slower Re-synthesis, Requires 15% more 02 supply for FFAs, COMPLEX reactions, Initial DELAY of synthesis at start of activity, Limited ENERGY during high intensity activity FATS (TRIGLYCERIDES) are broken down by ENZYME LIPASE into FFAs which are the broken down into ACETYL CoA. This is where it enters the KREB Cycle. They can produce more Acetyl CoA than Glucose but require 15% more 02. TRAINING increases Glycogen in muscle and liver, increases mobilisation of Enzymes and uses FFAs early = Aerobic Threshold increased • TOTAL ENERGY YIELD from the Aerobic System is 38 ATP from one molecule of Glucose • 2 ATP from Anaerobic Glycolysis • 2 ATP from the Kreb’s Cycle • 34 ATP from the ETC EQUATION for AEROBIC RESPIRATION: C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 = 6C02 + 6 H20 + ENERGY (for 38 ATP re-synthesis) Glucose is broken down in the Aerobic system by 02 into C02 and H20

48. ENERGY CONTINUUM • The Energy Continuum is a GRAPHICAL display of how the energy systems INTERACT together to provide energy for the re-synthesis of ATP. It highlights the PERCENTAGE of each of these 3 systems relating to both the DURATION and the INTENSITY of the activity. • Each sport/physical activity requires different percentages from each system. They RARELY work in ISOLATION. Some activities are mainly AEROBIC whilst others are ANAEROBIC. Most use a COMBINATION of all 3 Draw the following graph to represent how the Energy Systems Interact. X Axis = Time in minutes from 0 to 360 seconds and the Y Axis = Capacity of Energy System in % from 0 to 100%. Plot the following data for 3 lines 1) ATP / PC System (12, 98) (16, 50) (22 ,5) 2) Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis) (2, 1) (15, 60) (20, 95) (45, 98) (120, 93) (180, 50) (240, 35) (300, 25) 3) Aerobic Energy System (10, 10) (20, 25) (120 , 40) (300, 70) (360, 98) Highlight the points at which the PREDOMINANT energy system changes

49. THE 6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE TYPE OF ENERGY SYSTEM USED • INTENSITY and DURATION of the exercise: when the intensity is ANAEROBIC HIGH INTENSITY SHORT duration the system will be ATP/PC When intensity is LOW and duration is LONG the system will be AEROBIC. When intensity reaches a point that the aerobic system cannot be used it uses the LACTIC ACID system but this produces LACTIC ACID. The LACTATE THRESHOLD crossed when blood lactate is above resting levels. When blood lactate reaches 4mmol/L and above then OBLA has been reached. Fatigue will occur • ENERGY SYSTEM THRESHOLDS: a threshold is the POINT at which an energy system is taken over by another. ATP/PC system is 2-10seconds. ATP / PC changes to Lactic Acid System at 10 – 90 seconds. Lactic Acid to Aerobic System changes at 90 seconds to 3 minutes. After this it is the Aerobic System unless INTENSITY is high. • 02 AVAILABILITY: As long as 02 supply is there the Aerobic System will re-synthesise ATP. If there is INSUFFICIENT 02 the LACTIC ACID system will be used. This is dependent on RESPIRATORY and CV EFFICIENCY

50. THE 6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE TYPE OF ENERGY SYSTEM USED 4) FUEL AVAILABILITY: PC will be used for SHORT, HIGH intensity activity. Duration cannot be sustained when PC stores DEPLETE and intensity remain HIGH. PACING can conserve PC stores and RECOVERY periods can re-synthesise them. GLYCOGEN is the MAJOR fuel for the first 20 minutes of activity. It is readily available in the muscles and requires 15% less 02 than FFAs. It takes 2-3 minutes to use this though as sufficient 02 has not had time. Between 20 – 45 minutes FFAs will be broken down as well but only if intensity is LOW because of the need for 15% more 02. High LIVER GLYCOGEN levels will allow the athlete to maintain a higher intensity After 2 HOURS glycogen is DEPLETED and FFAs must be used. Unless athletes reduce intensity to allow 02 supply they may HIT THE WALL. 5) ENZYME ACTIVATION LEVELS: Reactions cannot take place without them. CREATINE KINASE is released when ADP increases and ATP decreases. This activates the PC system. PFK is released when PC decreases and this activates the Lactic Acid system. PFK is also released when ADRENALIN increases and INSULIN decreases, activating the AEROBIC system 6) FITNESS LEVELS: The more aerobically fit an athlete is the better 02/C02 transport which is essential to break down glycogen and FFAs. Conserving glycogen is crucial to delay OBLA and aerobic and lactate THRESHOLDS