THE AMERICAS!

1. THE AMERICAS! Tiffany Chan Judah GrayZafirHasanKevin LauEmma LouAli Saad Period 4

2. Mesoamerican Olmec (1200-400 BCE) South American Chavin (900-250 BCE) • Also polytheistic • Mostly agricultural, but had access to coast (Peru), so diet included seafood. • Its capital, Chavin de Huantar, located at intersection of trade routes. Led to increased trade and construction of roads, bridges, temples, palaces, etc. • Llamas used as beasts of burden. Promoted specialization and increased trade. • Class distinctions: local chiefs, more powerful chiefs/king, priests. • Metallurgy originates in Andean region and spreads. • Olmec and Chavin are important because neither developed near a river valley and had no contact with any other major civilizations developing at the time. • First and most influential Mesoamerican civilization • Supported by surplus of corn, beans, squash. Mastered irrigation techniques • Polytheistic • Developed system of writing & calendar. (shamans look at starsand produce calendar used to organizeritual life and agriculture) • Ceremonial center and monumental construction • Culture legacy: Giant heads made of basalt • Probably ruled by kings.

3. The Anasazi (700-1300 CE) and Hopewell ANASAZI: • Lived in southwest US: Four Corners (AZ, NM, CO, UT) • Economy based on maize, beans, squash • Kivas: underground buildingsLargest Anasazi community was Pueblo Bonito located in Chaco Canyon. Men do hunting and trade; women shared agricultural tasks, food preparation, childcare, etc. • Decline: People evacuate Chaco Canyon because drought. HOPEWELL: • Early example of N.American chiefdom-a form of political organization with rule by heredity leader who held power over collection of villages/towns. Based on gift giving and commercial links. • Large mounds built to house burials. • Decline in 400 CE with the abandonment of major sites, but revived in Mississippian culture with largest city: Cahokia.

4. Andean Civilizations (200 BCE-1532CE) • Had to cope with ridiculous weather. Managed to discover when to plant crops and how to freeze dry them. • Coastal regions provide maize, fish, cotton. Mountain valleys produce quinoa, and potatoes. • Ayllu: clan. Members of ayllu held land communally. • Mit’a: rotational labor system to work on behalf of the ruler and religious organizations. Each ayllu contributes set number of workers for specific tasks each year. Built and maintained roads, bridges, irrigation projects, etc. • Different genders have different roles. Men do hunting, military service, and government; women had responsibilities in textile production, agriculture, and home. • Moche • Built irrigation networks and urban centers dominated by brick temples. Had many skilled artisans. • Society highly stratified and theocratic. Wealth and power in hands on priests and military leaders. • Decline: 6th century: natural disasters (30 year drought and heave rains). New military power, Wari, put pressure on trade routes that linked coastal region with highlands.

5. The Inca • Imperial state called “Land of Four Corners” • Polytheistic, but sun god is most important. Religion has moral quality. • Built large military (chiefdom) to broaden and expand vertical exchange system that permitted ayllus to exploit range of ecological niches. Unlike Mesoamerica, who distributed specialized goods though markets and tribute relationships . • Mit’a system surplus for bare necessities of old, weak, and ill. • LOTS of temples (Machu Picchu). • Richest temple: Temple of the Sun in Cuzco (capital). Interior lined with gold, and decorated with gold llamas and corn. Sacrifices demonstrate ruler’s claimed descent from Sun. • Khipus (quipu): knotted colored cords for public administration, population counts, and tribute obligations. • Didn’t introduce new technology, but increased economic output and added to region’s prosperity with the use of roads, irrigation networks, and terracing. • 1525: Death of ruler Huayna Capac created struggle for throne. Erupted into a civil war. Weakened state because of regionalism and ethnic diversity. Europeans come on the eve of weakened Inca.

6. The Mesoamerican Societies:Classical and Post-Classical Eras 600 CE-1500

7. Classical Era of Mesoamerica • This time period, which lasted from 200 to 900 CE, oversaw the rise of several civilizations, including Teotihuacan and the Maya. • The Teotihuacan lived in present-day Mexico. At the height of its power, it was the largest city in the Americas, and was larger than most European and Asian cities at the time. It was a religious center and commercial power. • Religious architecture emphasized reverence of nature. Enormous pyramids were built dedicated to the gods (mainly the Sun and Moon gods). Temples were often the site of human sacrifice rituals. Priests were highly regarded. • Agriculture was essential for survival. Elites organized the commoners into labor masses. They worked the land, built irrigation canals, and hillside terraces. Chinampas helped sustain the growing population (allowed year-round agriculture). • The elite controlled state bureaucracy, tax collection, and commerce. There was no single ruler. • Teotihuacan seems to have exists in a peaceful era. There were no walls or defensive structures excavated. The military was created to protect long-distance trade and intimidate peasants to give their surplus crops to the city. • Teotihuacan collapsed in 750 CE.

8. The Maya (ca. 250 – 900) • The Maya occupied the area that is present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and Honduras. • Never created a single unified state even though everyone shared the same culture. Mayan territory existed in rival kingdoms (city-states) led by hereditary rulers. They struggled for regional dominance (much like the Mycenaean Greeks) • Mayan farmers also used irrigation, drained swamps, and built hillside terraces. • Pyramids stood at the center of plazas for religious and political rituals. They represented mountains reaching for the heavens and the doorways were portals to the underworld. Elites were generally the priests. • Mayan military forces sought to capture people rather than territory. Elite captives were sacrificed and captured commoners were laborers. • Women were central to religious rituals in the household and acted as healers/ shamans, tended the household and managed family life. • The Mayan contributed to the development of the Mesoamerica calendar, mathematics, writing, and astronomy. Scribes recorded aspects of Mayan life in a hieroglyphic inscription.

9. Post-Classic Period in Mesoamerica (900 – 1500) • The Toltecs heavily influenced the Aztecs. They had great military achievements and violent political and religious rituals. • Their political capital was located at Tula, in modern-day Mexico. It was founded in 968 CE. • Two chieftains (kings) shared power; the division of responsibility eventually weakened Toltec power. • Public buildings and temples were depicted with scenes of warriors and human sacrifice rituals. • Suffered internal power struggles and military threat from the north during the declining years after 1150. • The Toltec civilization collapses in 1175 and Tula is destroyed.

10. The Aztecs (ca. 1325 – 1521) • The Mexica migrated to central Mexico after the collapse of the Toltecs. They were organized as an altepetl (ethnic state) led by a tlatoani (ruler). A group of calpolli were the foundation of the altepetl. It controlled land allocation, tax collection and local religious life. • The Mexica migrated to Lake Texcoco ca. 1325 and built twin capitals Tenochtitlan and Tlateloco (foundations of modern Mexico City). Three causeways connected the island capital to the lakeshore. • Military success and alliances allowed the Mexica to become the Aztec Empire. • Monarchial system; a council of powerful aristocrats selected new rulers from a ruling lineage. The new ruler showed his divine mandate by undertaking a series of conquests. War provided rulers with legitimacy and increased prestige of warriors. Commoners could achieve social mobility through success in warfare. • Women had substantial power and influence (seen as founders of lineages) • Great inequalities in wealth and privilege was common • Merchants controlled long-distance trade (traded gold, jewels, feathers, cacao and skins), provided political/military intelligence for the elite and were very wealthy but had no privileges. Commerce was based on bartering. • Tribute system on conquered peoples (required to give food to empire) • Believed human sacrifice was essential to aid the Sun God • Spaniards arrive in 1519 during Montezuma II’s rule.

11. Aztec Civilization • Based out of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec civilization was born in the 12th century, and flourished until 1521, when the capital city fell. • The Aztec were very warlike and barbarous, and were in a nearly constant state of fighting, and as such, their military was brutal and merciless. • Religion was paramount in all levels of Aztec civilization, and their practices and pantheon reflected their way of life. • The Aztec's chief deity was Huitzilopochtli, the "left-handed hummingbird" and the god of the sun, war, and human sacrifice. • Aztec rituals and festivals were particularly barbaric as well, and they had entire holidays devoted to killing. • Human sacrifice was a tenet in Aztec society, and victims were usually tied to a stone, chopped to pieces, and either burnt as an offering, or eaten as ritual cannibalism. • The Aztecs had a rigid monarchy, in which the king had absolute power, and collected a tribute from local authorities. Any resistance to the king's absolute rule was put down mercilessly. • Women were held in higher regard than in other societies during the time, and women who died during childbirth were held in the same high regard as soldiers who died in battle. • The Aztec were economically dependent on agriculture, and invented chinampas, or "floating gardens", which they used to grow crops in the swampy areas surrounding the cities.

12. Mayan Civilization • The Mayan civilization occupied much of the Yucatan Peninsula, but the southern tribes were wiped out in the 11th century due to drought. The northern tribes continued to grow until the 16th century, until they were subjugated by the Spanish conquistadors. • The Mayans are venerated for their advanced studies of astronomy and astrology, and were known for constructing astronomical study centers, and the first to incorporate the mathematical concept of the zero. • The Mayans also were known for their religious beliefs, well-known Mayan deities being Kukulkan, the feathered serpent, Awilix, goddess of the moon and the underworld, and the deified "Hero Twins", Hunahpu and Xbalanque. • The Mayans also engaged in sacrifice, but not human to the extent of the Aztec. They also used their religious rituals and practices to further their astrological studies, and incorporated it into their architecture. • The Maya were also well known for their ballgame, in which the Hero Twins defeated the lords of the underworld, and which was replicated for recreation; however, losers were executed. • Mayan civilization was organized into city-states, each of which was centered around a ceremonial site. Each city-state was ruled by a king, who claimed divine right and claimed to be able to commune with the gods through a bloodletting ritual. • Mayan priests were held in high regard, as were soldiers. Slave labor was commonplace, and were usually prisoners of war. • Mayan society was patriarchal, and women tended to the housework and the household's agricultural endeavors, which centered around maize, cacao, and cotton.

13. Inca Civilization • By far the most peaceful of the three Latin American civilizations, the Inca Empire was created in the 1430s until its fall at the hands of the Spanish in 1532. • The Empire was based in its capital of Cusco, but is most famous now for the construction of Machu Picchu, which used an expansive system of hydraulics, irrigation, and canals, both to power the city, and to prevent erosion of the Andes mountain it was built on. • The religion of the Inca is not as well-defined as that of the Maya or the Aztec, but has one chief deity: Inti, the sun god, who was seen as the patron deity of the Inca Empire • The Inca are well known for their labor system: the mita, which required each citizen to work a certain amount of hours for the state. • The Inca had a strong centralized government and was led by a king, who was believed to be a god incarnate. • The government used the "hostage system", in which the members of the elite ruling class were forced to live in Cusco with the king to limit corruptive influence. • Unlike the Maya and Aztec, Inca society recognized parallel descent; both men and women could pass down property rights and inheritance, although men were still in a higher social stratum than women. • Women paid tribute to the king with jewelry, textiles, and pottery, but there was a notable lack of merchant activity, as the government controlled the distribution of resources throughout the empire. • The Inca made innovations in the agricultural field to facilitate crop growth, the most notable being the creation of terraces in the mountains to increase the amount of arable land for crops.

15. Spanish Conquests • In the mid-1500s, the Spanish conquistadors arrived on the shores of what is now Latin America. The Spaniards, who had superior militaristic technology and fighting prowess, easily dispatched with the native civilizations and established colonies there, forming the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico, and the Viceroyalty of Peru in South America. • Among the conquistador party were many missionaries, who zealously spread Catholicism to the pagan, polytheistic "heretics". Thousands of baptisms were performed in the Viceroyalties after the falls of the Inca, Aztec, and Maya, and any polytheistic adherents were brutally punished to the fullest extent of the Catholic Church's power. • Diego de Landa, a particularly zealous Franciscan monk, spearheaded the Mayan conversion efforts, and burned thousands of Mayan religious texts in an effort to completely stamp out the religion in the area. • This has severely limited our modern knowledge of the Mayan religion. • The Spaniards also brought disease with them, especially smallpox. The natives had no immunity to the new plague, and hundreds of thousands of Amerindians died to the European diseases, completely ravaging the native population. • After the subjugation of the natives, the Spaniards proceeded to grow their colonies. The Church had major influence in every aspect of Spanish colonial life, and controlled much of the public services of the Viceroyalties, including the schools and banks, and had major influence in governmental affairs.

16. European Explorers in the Americas • Amerigo Vespucci-Explored South America, realized not part of Asia. America named for him. • Ponce de Leon- 1513- explored Florida in search of fountain of youth • Basco de Balboa- 1513- explored Central America and saw the Pacific Ocean • Ferdinand Magellan-1519-Sailed around tip of South America to Pacific Ocean. • Giovanni da Verrazano-1524-explored North America’s coast • John Cabot- 1597- explored North American coast • Henry Hudson-1609-Looked for a northwest passage to Asia, explored Hudson River • Main reason(s) for exploring: wealth, spread Christianity, and/or finding a faster way to Asia.

17. Fall of the Aztec and Inca • 1519: Cortes lands on the coast of Mexico with 600 men. Landed in Aztec empire. • Aztec used conquest of neighboring communities for human sacrifices; loathed and hated Aztec, so they cooperated with the Spanish. • Montezuma, Aztec ruler, thought Cortes was a god because of his pale skin and skinny legs. Gave gifts to Corte. Spaniards main motivation for exploring the New World was for gold and spices, so they took advantage and seized Montezuma and began a siege of Tenochtitlan. • Although Aztec have strong military, smallpox quickly killed them. Plus, the Spaniards had superior weapons and support from Aztec enemies. • 1525- Spaniards seize control. ______________________________________________________________________ • Same thing happens in Inca Empire. • 1531-Franciso Pizarro searched for Incas with 200 men. Atahualpa, new Incan ruler who kills his brother to take the throne, is captured alive. Agrees to buy his freedom from the Spaniards. Still executed, but Spaniards ensure he dies as a Christian • 1535- Pizarro gains control of region through disease, superior weapon, and enemy help.

18. Spanish Colonial Growth • The Spanish Viceroyalties continued to grow, using the subjugated Amerindians as slaves. The Spanish created a new social hierarchy, with the European born peninsulares at the top, creoles right below them (those born in Latin America with Spanish parents), mestizos, mixed-heritage Latin Americans, below the creoles, and the native Amerindians at the bottom. • The Spanish also utilized the encomienda system, which allowed the peninsulares to hold estates, on which the Amerindians acted as slaves. The slaves were victim to terrible abuses at the hands of their masters. • The Catholic Church remained influential in the colonies until the mid/late-1700s, when the Spanish crown expelled the Jesuits from the colonies in an effort to diminish the power and influence of the Catholic Church in colonial affairs. La EncomiendaAmerican slaves work on a Spanish estate

19. The Columbian Exchange • Exchange of new foods, animals, and resources between Europe and Americas. From Europe: horses, pigs, goats, sugar cane. From America: squash, beans, cacao. • Also exchange of weapons, diseases, ideas, and people • Key products of Exchange: SUGAR AND SILVER • Sugarcane production resulted in development of plantations throughout Spanish colonies. Increased need for enslaved/forced labor • Spanish monopolized world’s silver market from mines in Mexico and Andes Mountain of Peru. • Spanish control of Latin American silver opened doors in Ming China. Easier access to Philippines, China, and Pacific trade routes.

22. The Americas 1750-Present

23. The Abolishment of Slavery • Slavery in the U.S. is weakened by abolition in the north and the end of the African slave trade in 1808 • Secession of the Confederate States and Civil War within America • Adoption of the Jim Crow laws, segregating blacks in public facilities. • Brazil follows, viewing slavery as an obstacle to economic development and an impediment to democratic reform • Other importers abolish slavery, often from the influence of Britain • After the African slave trade came to an end, millions of Europeans and Asians immigrated to the Western Hemisphere. They help foster rapid economic growth and territorial occupation of frontier regions in the U.S. Anti-Immigrant Movements arise • Women are angered by the exclusion of their rights in the wake of antislavery movements, and begin to struggle for equality

24. The Industrial Revolution • Spinning of the cotton thread ed revolutionized through a series of inventions. • Mechanization offers increased productivity for the manufacturer and lower prices for the customer • Cotton becomes America’s most valuable crop by the 1800s. • Increased profit and efficiency through inventions of steam engine, railroads, and canals • Greater global connectivity through wire networks • Women’s rights are neglected • Greater division between upper and lower classes • Rise of labor unions and child labor laws • Latin American countries become increasingly dependent on foreign powers and influence as they struggle to keep up with the world economy

25. Imperialism • White Man’s Burden • Industrialization stimulates demands for minerals and raw materials • Imperialists are successful in their conquests due to superior technology • Latin America is an attractive target for manipulation by the industrial powers, including the U.S., through free-trade imperialism. • Extensive railroad networks were established throughout Latin America • The U.S. sent troops to Cuba and other Caribbean and Central American republics after defeating Spain in 1898

26. World War I • President Woodrow Wilson originally intended to stay out of the European conflict • The Germans gamble by sinking American ships that carried supplies to Great Britain, hoping resistance would collapse before American intervention • Discovery of the Zimmerman note leads the U.S. to formally declare war on Germany and its allies on April 6, 1917 • Allied powers are victorious • Countries in Europe suffer from environmental damage, which the U.S. manages to avoid • Despite his prominence in the Paris Peace Conference, Wilson is unsuccessful in his fourteen points, and the Treaty of Versailles is established.

27. World War II • The U.S. is drawn into the war with the bombing of Pearl Harbor, in which Japan attempted to cripple the U.S. navy. • America fights against Japan on the Pacific Front while assisting the Western powers in Europe. • Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing • The U.S. and Soviet Union emerge as the world’s two superpowers. Conflicts arise between their differing government systems, leading to the Cold War. • The U.S. assists in the recovery of the European economy

28. Revolution in America and Haiti • The American Revolution • A combination of new taxes and commercial policies were employed in the British colonies in order to put some of Britain’s expenses on the colonies’ shoulders. This caused widespread protests and boycotts in the colonies. • France joined the U.S. in its struggle for independence. • New constitutions focused on balancing power among executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. • Haiti • People on Saint Domingue (present-day Haiti) were inspired by the American and French Revolution to complete the first successful slave rebellion. • Political turmoil in France weakened the authority of colonial leaders. • Revolution was bloody and pitted slaves and free blacks against planters. • Toussaint L’Ouverture led revolution in Haiti and by 1804 Haiti had gained independence.

29. Revolution in Latin America • Latin America • Napoleon’s invasion of Spain (1808) and Portugal (1807) undermined the power of the kings and caused fighting between local juntas and colonial leaders. • Simón Bolívar was the military leader of a junta in Venenzuela. • Bolívar freed Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. • José de San Martín led battles against Spanish forces in Chile and Peru • In Mexico, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and Jose Maria Morelos led the revolutions against Spain until they were executed. • Agustin de Iturbide was a loyalist commander who formed alliances with rebels to declare Mexico’s independence. • In Brazil, King John VI left his son, Pedro I, in Brazil while he returned to Portugal. Pedro I declared Brazilian Independence without any bloodshed. • Latin American countries were not used to democracy because they were not ruled under democratic systems when they were colonies. Therefore, democracy often failed in Latin American countries and dictatorships often prevailed.

30. U.S. Involvement in the Cold War • Was a period of political and military tension between the U.S and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies. • The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was a military alliance of Western European states and the U.S. against Soviet Russia and its allies (1949). • The Warsaw Pact was an alliance between Soviet Russia and its allies in response to NATO (1955). • United States • U.S. adopted the policy of “Containment” in which it sought to stop the spread of Communism • Korean War was the first “Hot War” of the Cold War. South Korea was supported by U.S. and its allies. N.Korea was supported by Soviet Union and China (1950-1953). • Vietnam War was seen as a U.S. failure. At the end of the war, Vietnam became communist. “Domino effect” justified intervention in Vietnam. If one southeast country fell the rest would fall. • U.S. supported Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in Iran because he embraced Western governments and culture. U.S. was afraid that Iran would turn to Soviets for help (1950s). • In Afghanistan, the U.S. supported Afghan rebels against the Soviet Union (late 1970s).

31. Central and Latin America and the Cold War • Latin America • Guatemala • JacoboArbenz Guzman advocated for land reform in Guatemala and tried to reduce U.S. political influence. • U.S. thought he was seeking closer ties with Soviet Union so the CIA staged a military coup in Guatemala which overthrew Arbenz, but left Guatemala with decades of political instability and violence. • Cuba • In Cuba, the CIA trained Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro. Efforts to overthrow the government led to the Cuban Missile Crisis in which nuclear weapons were deployed in Cuba. The missiles were eventually removed. • The U.S. often supported anti-communist regimes in Latin America to prevent communism from spreading. • In Argentina, the U.S. supported a dictatorship which participated in the Dirty Wars in which the dictatorship purged its political enemies. • In Nicaragua, Sandinistas took power in 1979 and sought to imitate the economies of Cuba and the Soviet Union. U.S. financed the Contras who were against the Sandinistas. • In El Salvador, the FMLN was a guerilla movement that was about top take power. However, the U.S. trained the El Salvadoran army to combat the FMLN

32. Works Cited • Bulliet, Richard, et al. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, 2011. Print. • "Teaching With Documents: The Zimmermann Telegram." National Archives. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/zimmermann/>. • "HistoryWorld Timelines." HistoryWorld Timelines. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 May 2013. <http://historyworld.net/timesearch/default.asp?conid=2>.