Research process

1. Prof. Dr. Wajiha Shah Research process

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3. 1. The idea: A research project is born

4. Idea • An idea represents the closest approach to reality that will be researched • There are lots of different resources that generate ideas • In the beginning ideas are vague. They require careful analysis in order to transform into structured and precise research statements

5. 2. Choosing a research topic

6. Research topic • Once the researcher got acquainted and familiar with the topic then it is possible to setup the research topic. • There is certain criteria that is needed in order to narrow down the general topic into the “just-right” (research) topic. • Has to be straight forward, usually as a question • Should be viable and verifiable by empirical proof • For example, “how sublime is a person’s soul?” is not a good research topic since sublime is not something that is measurable, neither is a person’s soul.

7. Research topic • There are also some elements that should be taken into consideration in order to choose a research topic. • Objectives: guidelines for the research • What is the main purpose for the research? • Solve problem • Prove a theory • Introduce new knowledge

8. Research topic • Questions: together with the objectives, creating questions will present the topic in a direct manner, minimizing the distortion. • The question or questions might not deal with the topic in its entirety, but they will also help guide the research. • Questions should be concrete, since general questions will not help. • Questions like: why are some people happier than others? Why do some marriages last more than others? How does media relate to people’s voting? • This questions are too general and actually end up generating more questions

9. Research topic • Justification: this is the explanation for your research, and it’s importance. • Some of the reasons why a specific research might be important: • Convenience: Why is its importance? • Social relevance: What benefits would come out of it? • Practical implications: Is it practical? Does it solve an actual problem? • Theoretical value • Viability: this has to do with the possibility of performing research with the resources that are available. • Do you have enough money/time/people to help you carry on the research

10. 3.Creating an outline

11. Creating an outline • After the previous steps have been completed it is important for the researcher to analyze and expose the theories, theoretical approaches that help with the foundation of the topic. • Usually observed as an index with titles and subtitles • It is important to know that looking over at the existent literature helps out with figuring out the best way, and more importantly, the manner in which we want to deal with our research and the topic.

12. Creating an outline • Functions: • Helps prevent mistakes that might have been committed in previous studies or research • Leads the way into figuring out how the research should be performed. • Broadens the horizon and helps the researcher understanding the need to carry research in more depth • Helps with the establishment of a hypothesis or affirmations that need to be tested • Inspires new lines or areas of research • It gives the researcher a starting point

13. Stages: there are two stages • Literature revision (revising sources): • Making sure that the sources are trustworthy • Remember back to PP presentation: Sources and Organization • Adoption of a specific theory or theoretical perspective: When revising the literature we might find out that: • There is a theory accompanied by empirical evidence to back it up that applies to out research • There are several theories that apply to our research • There are “bits and pieces” of theory with some empirical evidence, that suggest important information for the research • There are important discoveries without a theory to back them up • There are unstudied guidelines that are vaguely related to the research.

14. Theory: actual knowledge that helps understand, events, situations and contexts Describes, explains, predicts, and finally orients the research process • Criteria, to evaluate: • Able to explain, describe and predict • Logical consistency • Perspective: That it explains the topic (almost) totally • Innovation: Capability to generate new discoveries • Simplicity: Not required but desired in order to easily understand it

15. 4. Types of research

19. http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-tesis-investigacion/tipos-investigacion-1-2http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-tesis-investigacion/tipos-investigacion-1-2

20. 5. Establishing Hypothesis

21. Hypothesis • Guide the research • Tentative explanation to researched phenomena formulated as propositions or questions • All though most types of research require a hypothesis, in exploratory research no hypothesis is required since there is not that much information available. • They are NOT ALWAYS correct, they could be incorrect or even null.

22. Types of hypothesis • Research: • The expected income for workers in Paraguay is between $800 and $1000 dlls. • The more physical attraction there is, the less trust • Null (work to negate a statement): • The expected income for workers in Paraguay is not between $800 and $1000 dlls. • The is no relationship between physical attraction and trust • Alternative (to research or null): • Young men give more importance to physical attraction than young women

23. 6. Research design

24. What is research design? • The plan or strategy that we will follow in order to obtain the information that we want, or require. • Usually this is selected when you choose your specific topic, decided on a theoretical view, and formulated the hypothesis.

25. Choosing and appropriate research design • Experimental (require a specific design, and are used mostly in natural sciences): In these designs the researcher decides on what variables to study and how to modify them • Experiment: random choice of participants, and their assignment to their study groups • Quasi-experiment: not entirely random • Non-experimental (used mostly in social sciences): In these designs the researcher does not manipulate the variables, but only “observes” phenomena as it happens in its natural environment • Causal: relate two variables • Exploratory: initial exploration of a community • Descriptive: research the repetitiveness of a certain variable in a population

26. 7. Sample selection

27. 7. Sample selection • Sample: • Set of elements that come from a bigger set (population). • We study this set in order to know the characteristics of the bigger set.

28. Why use a sample instead of the population? • Because the population requires a detailed study, and all though the sample only allows an approximate result it is less costly in money and time.

29. Sampling is important because… • It is cheaper, faster and still representative • In order to start sampling we need to specify the selection method and the type of sample

30. Probability sampling • Random Sample: • Each individual has an equal likelihood of selection • Stratified Sample: • Mini-reproduction of the population • Split into characteristics of importance • Examples: Gender, social class, religion, etc. • i.e. if 38% of the population is college educated, then 38% of the sample needs to be better educated • It is better than the random sample, but it is more difficult to construct

31. Non-Probability sampling • Quota Sample: • the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample. This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population. The proportions may or may not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population. • Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss Muslims (because there are not many in that state). To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer be representative of the actual proportions in the population. This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented in the survey.

32. Non-Probability sampling • Purposive Sample: • non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available. • Example: Snowball sample. One person tells another about the survey, and this person another, and this one another, etc.

33. Non-Probability sampling • Convenience Sample: • taking what you can get. It is an accidental sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.

34. Now… …that we have selected the sample • What does it mean to select a specific number for the sample? • Which proportion of the population are we selecting? • And when we want to have conclusions about the population, how many of the elements of the population does each one of the sample elements represent?

35. Size of sample

36. 8. Collecting data

37. Collecting data: Instruments • Scale of values:

38. Collecting data: Instruments • Questionnaires: • Two types: open and closed questions • Examples: • Are you currently studying in any type of program? ( ) yes ( ) no • In your own point of view, how do you define physical fitness?

39. Characteristics of a good question • Clear and easily comprehensible • Do not make the person uncomfortable • Do not induce answer • Appropriate language • No set length • Suggestion: Nothing that takes longer than 35 min. to answer Best size for the questionnaire