Sociology Ch. 4 S. 4: Groups Within Society

1. Sociology Ch. 4 S. 4: Groups Within Society Obj: Summarize the major features of primary and secondary groups; Identify the purposes that groups fulfill.

2. A society is not only a group; it is a group made up of other smaller groups. Every individual in society participates in groups. In fact, sociologists such as David Orenstein consider "groups and group activities ... the very foundation upon which social life is structured." A group can be very small-two people on a date, for example. Or it can be very large-5OO soldiers at boot camp. A group can be very intimate, as in the case of the family. It can also be very formal, as in the case of people attending a conference.

3. What Is a Group? In sociological terms, a group has four major features. First, it must consist of two or more people. Second, there must be interaction among members. If you exchange greetings with a friend in the hall at school, for example, interaction has taken place. Interaction occurs whenever the actions of one person cause another person or persons to act. Third, the members of the group must have shared expectations. Fourth, the members must possess some sense of common identity.

4. The last three features-interaction, shared expectations, and a common identity-distinguish a group from an aggregate or a social category. When people gather in the same place at the same time but lack organization or lasting patterns of interaction, they form an aggregate. Passengers on an airplane or people standing in a ticket line at the movies are examples of aggregates. In the case of social categories, it is not necessary for the people to interact in any way. A social category is simply a means of classifying people according to a shared trait or a common status. Students, women, teenagers, and left-handed people are examples of social categories. All groups are not the same. Obviously, they can differ in size. They also differ in the length of time they remain together and in their organizational structure.

5. Size While some groups are very small, other groups are enormous. The smallest group possible, a group with two members, is called a dyad. In a dyad each member of the group has direct control over the group's existence. If one member leaves the group, the group ends. Consequently, decision making in a dyad can be difficult. If the two members fail to agree, one member must convince the other to change his or her position or the group may cease to exist.

6. According to sociologist Georg Simmel, a major change occurs in groups when group size increases from two members to three members. With a three-person group, called a triad, the group takes on a life of its own, independent of any individual member. No one person can disband the group. In addition, decision making in a triad is often easier than in a dyad, since two-against-one alliances can form in cases of disagreement.

7. How large can a small group be? Sociologists consider a small group one with few enough members that everyone is able to interact on a face-to-face basis. The more members, the greater the number of face-to-face relationships. For example, in a group of just 10 members the possible number of face-to-face relationships is 45. Sociologists have found that 15 is the largest number of people that can work well in one group. When the group is larger than that, members have a tendency to sort themselves into smaller groups.

8. Time Some groups you may participate in meet once and never meet again. Other groups you are part of-such as your family—exist for many years. Most groups fall somewhere in between these two extremes. However, regardless of the type of group, interaction is not continuous. Few people spend 24 hours a day with their families, for example. Instead family members meet as a group during different periods of the day, such as at breakfast or dinner.

9. Organization The organization of groups can be either formal or informal. In a formal group, the structure, goals, and activities of the group are clearly defined. In an informal group there is no official structure or established rules of conduct. The student government in your school is a formal group. All meetings are conducted according to specific rules. The goals of the group are slated in the constitution, and norms for all occasions are listed in the bylaws. Your circle of friends would be an example of an informal group, because you likely do not have rules or structure for meetings.

10. Types of Groups We all are members of different types of groups. The most common types of groups recognized by sociologists include primary groups, secondary groups, reference groups, in-groups, and out-groups. Since the development of the Internet, sociologists have noted the emergence of a new kind of group, called e-communities.

11. Primary and Secondary Groups One of the easiest ways to classify groups is according to the degree of intimacy that occurs among group members. Charles Horton Cooley used the term primary group to describe those involving the most intimate relationships. "By primary groups," Cooley said, "I mean those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual."

12. A primary group is a small group of people who interact over a relatively long period of time on a direct and personal basis. In primary-group relationships the entire self of the individual is taken into account. The relationships are intimate and often face-to-face. Communication is deep and intense, and the structure is informal. Family relationships are probably the most common primary relationships.

13. Against this, Cooley contrasted secondary groups. A secondary group is a group in which interaction is impersonal and temporary in nature. Secondary-group relationships involve a reaction to only a part of the individuals self. Secondary-group relationships also tend to be casual and limited in personal involvement. The person's importance to the group lies in the function that he or she performs in the group. An individual can be replaced easily by anyone who can carry out the specific tasks needed to achieve the group's goals. This characteristic is particularly important because secondary groups are generally organized around specific goals. Examples of secondary groups include a classroom, a factory, and a political party.

14. Suppose you work at a cement factory, loading cement into sacks. The factory management has little interest in your personality. Whether you attend religious services regularly and what you do with your leisure time is of little concern to them. They are interested only in your ability to load cement into the sacks. If you cannot handle the responsibilities of the job adequately, you will likely be replaced by someone else who can. It is also possible for primary and secondary relationships to exist in the same group. Within most secondary groups to which you may belong, you might develop some primary relationships. Look again at the example of the cement factory. Within that secondary group you might form primary relationships with other workers on the line. These relationships provide you with the regular interaction and friendship lacking in the secondary group.

15. Reference Groups People usually perform their social roles and judge their own behaviors according to the standards set by a particular group. They do not have to belong to this group, however. As long as people identify with the groups standards and attitudes, the group influences their behavior. Any group with whom individuals identify and whose attitudes and values they adopt is called a reference group. Groups of friends or school clubs serve as reference groups for many students. Members of a particular occupation often serve as reference groups for adults. As children grow up or as adults adjust to changing social conditions, they often change their reference groups. The choice of reference groups is particularly important because groups can have both positive and negative effects on behavior.

16. In-Groups and Out-Groups All groups have boundaries-methods of distinguishing between members and nonmembers. When a group’s boundaries are clearly marked, group members tend to think in terms of in-groups and out-groups. The group that a person belongs to and identifies with is called an in-group. Any groups that the person does not belong to or identify with is called an out-group. Both primary and secondary groups can serve as in-groups and out-groups. Most in-groups exhibit three characteristics. First , group members tend to separate themselves from other groups through the use of symbols. For example, groups often use badges, clothing, names, or slogans as forms of identification. Second, members view themselves positively and they often view out-groups in negative terms. Finally, in-groups generally compete with out-groups, even to the point of engaging in conflict.

17. E-communities Some sociologists have suggested that computer technology-most notably the Internet-has given rise to a new type of group. In an e-community, people interact with one another regularly on the Internet. Most of these communities are based on Usenet, a system of Internet discussion groups called newsgroups. At present, there are some 90,000 newsgroups covering an almost endless array of subjects. Most newsgroups are little more than sites for members to discuss issues of common interest. However, some seem like primary groups. Members exhibit behaviors similar to those of primary-group members in the "real world." They argue, engage in intellectual discussions, exchange knowledge, share intimate details of their lives, gossip, argue, play games, and even flirt. The only difference is that they do it online rather than face-to-face.

18. Social Networks We all belong to more than one group and interact with more than one set of people. Whether on the Internet or in the "real world." The web of relationships that is formed by the sum total of a person's interactions with other people is termed a social network. Social networks include both direct and indirect relationships. We have direct relationships with those whom we interact with in our primary and secondary group relationships. We have indirect relationships with people we know or who know us but with whom we have little or no interaction, such as friends of a friend.

19. Unlike groups, social networks do not have clear boundaries and do not give rise to a common sense of identity. Yet they do provide us with a feeling of community and with opportunities for social interaction and career advancement. In some instances, knowing the "right" person can mean the difference between getting or not getting a job. Social networks also provide a support system that can help us through stressful periods.

20. Group Functions In order to exist, all groups must fulfill several basic functions Groups must define their boundaries so that members can tell who belongs and who does not. To do this, groups use an array of methods, including symbols, such as uniforms or other styles of dress; gestures, such as hand signals or handshakes; and language. Groups must also select leaders-people who influence the attitudes and opinions of others. In some cases leadership roles are assigned. For example, the board of directors of a large corporation selects the company's chief executive officer. With other groups, individuals achieve leadership because of some ability, such as soccer skills or expertise at chess. Still other groups use elections to choose leaders. Members of many professional associations cast ballots to select their presidents.

21. Studies suggest that, regardless of how they are selected, leaders fall into two categories. Instrumental leaders are task-oriented. They find specific means that will help the group reach its goals. Expressive leaders, on the other hand, are emotion-oriented. They find ways to keep the group together and to maintain morale. Groups need both kinds of leadership to be successful. An instrumental leader might develop a game plan for the football team to win a championship. At the same time, an expressive leader might use fight songs and chants to keep team spirits high in the days before the big game.

22. Groups also need to perform the related functions of setting goals, assigning tasks, and making decisions. If groups have no purpose, then there is no reason for them to exist. Therefore, groups set goals. The nature and scope of these goals varies from group to group. The goals for an informal group may be as simple as maintaining the group. Formal groups may have very large goals. For example, the American Sociological Association has a very broad goal advancing sociology as a science and profession. In contrast, the goal of a National Football League team is fairly narrow in scope-to win the Super Bowl. To achieve their goals, groups need to assign tasks to their members. Knowing what is being done, and who is doing it, helps strengthen members' support for the group. Setting goals and assigning tasks involves making decisions. Whatever a group's decisions, the methods of making them must be acceptable to members.

23. Finally, groups need to control their members‘ behavior. If members constantly violate group norms, the group cannot long survive. The group, therefore, needs to employ effective sanctions to ensure conformity to norms. Primary groups generally allow a greater level of nonconformity than do secondary groups. Interestingly, people tend to show a greater commitment to primary group norms. This is because they place a high value on primary-group membership. In turn, members tend to belong to primary groups longer than secondary groups. Conformity is linked to the importance that people attach to a particular group.