Nuclear Waste

1. Nuclear Waste November 15, 2011 Environmental Policy - Dr. Inscho JT Pugh - Robert Stachler - Thomas Davis - Mary Hinkle - Steven Williams - Jesse Grogean

2. Nuclear Waste & Radiation • Varying levels of radioactivity that attack living tissue • Mining, nuclear power generation, various industrial processes, defense weapons production, nuclear medicine, and scientific research all can produce nuclear waste. • Acute effects of radiation include nausea, vomiting, and often times can be accompanied by melancholy, fever, hemorrhage, and the development of cancer over time. • A victim of radiation exposure may die in a few hours, days or weeks. • Largest radiation risk comes from the after effects of uranium mining.

3. Internalization • Ingesting or inhaling nuclear waste particles • Nuclear Waste in water spreads to sources of vegetation and various animal life. • Due to the troublesome half life of nuclear waste, it can take several lifetimes for decay of the ingested material within the body. http://library.thinkquest.org/3471/nuclear_waste_body.html

4. Radiation (Alpha) • Alpha Radiation characteristics: • Alpha emitters: in almost all cases is unable to penetrate the skin. • Heavy, very short-range particle and is actually an ejected helium nucleus • Examples: Radon, Uranium, Radium

5. Radiation (Beta) • Beta Radiation characteristics: • Beta emitters: capable of traveling several feet in air and is somewhat penetrating. • A light, short-range particle and is an ejected electron • Examples: Tritium, Suflur-35

6. Radiation (Gamma) • Gamma Radiation characteristics: • Gamma emitters: very capable of traveling in the air and penetrating human skin and tissues. • highly penetrating electromagnetic radiation (sometimes referred to as x-rays) • Examples: cobalt-60, iodine-131 * Growing amounts of radiation only increases the likelihood of the development of cancer, not the severity of the disease itself.

7. Common Radiation Factors Source: CEA http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs53/pdf-gb/009-11pflury_53gb.pdf

8. Radiation Cont. • Temporary sterility in men can occur with a single absorbed dose of about 0.15 grays. • In children, the threshold for congenital malformation and other developmental abnormalities has contributed to the growing number of birth defects • No proven medical treatment exists for those exposed to dangerous radiation.

9. Why Deep Geological Repositories? • The waste needs to be isolated from both the surface and water tables • Long term Isolation needed due to radioactivity and half lives • Multiple viable geological systems • Granitic Units • Volcanic Tuff • Salt Beds (WIPP Site at Carlsbad, NM)

10. More Reasons for Repositories • Volume of waste • 87,000 to 105,000 Metric Tons of Heavy Metal in the US alone • Mostly U238 (95%) with some other byproducts

11. Challenges of Repositories • Engineering Issues – Length of Time (1000s of years) • Investigation of sites – Costs/Completeness/Limited • Future Climate and Disruptive Forecasting • Volcanic Activity • Earthquakes • Engineering Waste Packages – 10000s of years Source: DoE Viability Assessment of a Repository at Yucca Mountain

12. Other Problems • Transport • Terrorism • Societal Issues • Society Lifetimes – “The problem is how to keep radioactive waste in storage until it decays after hundreds of thousands of years. The geologic deposit must be absolutely reliable as the quantities of poison are tremendous. It is very difficult to satisfy these requirements for the simple reason that we have had no practical experience with such a long term project. Moreover permanently guarded storage requires a society with unprecedented stability” -Hannes Alfvén 1979

14. GovernmentalFactions: Federal State

15. Federal

16. Federal Government • Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • Department of Energy (DOE) • Department of Transportation (DOT) • licenses disposal facilities and ensures their compliance with all standards and requirements • sets environmental standards for radioactive waste disposal • develops the deep geologic repositories for the disposal of high-level waste and spent nuclear fuel • regulates the transportation of radioactive wastes to storage and disposal sites (along with the NRC)

17. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) • “created as an independent agency by Congress in 1974 to enable the nation to safelyuse radioactive materialsfor beneficial civilian purposes while ensuring that people and the environment are protected. The NRC regulates commercial nuclear power plants and other uses of nuclear materials, such as in nuclear medicine, through licensing, inspection and enforcement of its requirements.”

18. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • The EPA is responsible for developing environmental standards that apply to radioactive waste disposal facilities. • The NRC ensures that waste facilities comply with EPA standards.

19. Department of Energy (DOE) • Responsible for creating a “permanent disposal in a deep geologic repository for spent fuel and high-level radioactive waste” to be used by civilian and military nuclear factions • Must locate, build, and operate a repository

20. Department of Transportation (DOT) • Responsible for regulating transportation of nuclear waste • Must follow the packaging rules of the NRC, which also must certify the packaging designs • Prescribes the limits on external radiation and contamination • Dictates the vehicle regulations and vehicle operator regulations.

21. States

22. Agreement State Program • NRC’s concedes nuclear waste regulation (and other nuclear categories) authority to the state • The state must have “a program for the control of radiation hazards adequate to protect the public health and safety” • It must be compatible with the Commission's program for the regulation of such materials

23. NRC Still Regulates: • A. The construction and operation of any production or utilization facility; • B. The export from or import into the United States of byproduct, source, or special nuclear material, or of any production or utilization facility; • C. The disposal into the ocean or sea of byproduct, source, or special nuclear waste materials as defined in regulations or orders of the Commission; • D. The disposal of such other byproduct, source, or special nuclear material as the Commission from time to time determines by regulation or order should, because of the hazards or potential hazards thereof, not be so disposed of without a license from the Commission.

24. Nuclear NGO’s • WANO- The World Association of Nuclear Operators is a worldwide organization that unites all countries and corporations that have an operating commercial reactor. • WANO Mission: To maximize the safety and reliability of nuclear power plants worldwide by working together to assess, benchmark and improve performance through mutual support, exchange of information and emulation of best practices. • WNTI- World Nuclear Transport Institute • A Worldwide Co-operative group designed to represent the interests of the radioactive materials transport sector

25. History of U.S. Nuclear Waste Policy • Passage of Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 Resulted from: • Demands of political process from public • Organizational capacity of federal agencies • Available scientific information

26. 1950s • Nuclear Waste originally seen as technological problem of secondary importance • Electric companies considering using nuclear power assumed that a spent nuclear fuel cell would be able to be recycled • “backdoor” problem of nuclear fuel cycle to be handled later • 1957 study by National Association of Science (NAS) determined permanent national waste repository was necessary

27. 1970s • Increased public concern • 1973 leak at Hanford, Washington • 3 years later, referendum measure for nuclear waste put on California ballot • Linked power plant construction to permanent disposal alternatives • No more nuclear plants are built until permanent disposal of nuclear waste was accomplished • 1978, 33 states had some form of nuclear waste legislation • Federal government declared formal responsibility for permanent nuclear waste disposal

28. 1980s • The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 • Required Department of Energy (DoE) to take the spent fuel from utilities by 1998 • DoE required to start studying for potential permanent sites • Power companies began collecting from rate-payers and paid 1/10 of a cent per kilowatt hour of nuclear generated electricity to put towards a repository for the waste • 1987, The Nuclear Waste Policy Act was amended by congress to focus permanent repository efforts on Yucca Mountain, Nevada

29. 1990s • Federal government would not be ready to accept the spent fuel • Power companies started looking for temporary storage options • By 1998, DoE still studying Yucca Mountain site, 12 years away from completion • A temporary storage facility at Yucca Mountain failed to pass in Congress • Power companies sued the federal government for breaching contract

30. 2000s • The Nuclear Waste Bill for temporary storage at Yucca Mountain passed in House and Senate, but not enough to override potential presidential veto • Differences in the Senate and House bill never got resolved • Bill allowed to “die”

31. Organizations • Groups that effected the movement on a national level • Critical Mass • Physicians for Social Responsibility (PSR) • Sierra Club • More anti-nuclear power/waste organizations include: • Friends of the Earth • The Nuclear Information Resource Service (NIRS) • Clamshell Alliance

32. The Road to Yucca Mountain • 1982- Nuclear Policy Waste Act • Investigation on sites for nuclear waste storage • 1983- DoE • 9 Potential Sites • Over the years, list narrowed to 3 sites: • Yucca Mountain, NV • Hanford, WA • Deaf Smith County, TX • 1987- Congress mandated the DoE to put all efforts towards Yucca Mountain • Solution by rudimentary studies and calculations • Because small influence/delegation on DC

33. Yucca Mountain http://nfrcoalition.blogspot.com/2011/01/yucca-mountain-still-on-table.html

34. Yucca Mountain • Nevada • 90 miles NW of Las Vegas • Ridge of volcanic rock • Supposed to hold the nation’s most poisonous nuclear waste • Repository Site • Must hold and isolate nuclear waste for 10,000 years to reduce the poison from the half life of the atoms • Uses geological and man made structures to advantage • Relies on stainless-steel canisters • Built to last at least 1,000 years

35. Proposed Facility Drawing/Repository Site http://www.coolhandnuke.com/Cool-Hand-Blog.aspx?ArticleType=ArticleView&ArticleID=66

36. Geological Factors of Yucca Mountain • 6 inches of rain per year • Only 1/15” covered on surface due to heavy evaporation • West- 4 volcanoes rise from a high valley • Southeast- Busted Butte • Peak torn in half due to earthquakes • Not an issue due to the strength and stability of mines and tunnels • East- Nevada Test Site • Nuclear weapons testing • Composition of Mountain- Yucca Rock • Zeolites contained in Yucca Rock • Bind radioactive particles

37. Why Yucca Mountain? • Hydrologic Basins are closed • Multiple aquifers: Carbonate vs. Volcanic • Long Hydrologic Paths – Repository to Groundwater Discharge • Average of 7mm/year • Geochemical Characteristics of the Rocks • Volcanic Tuff/Ignimbrite • Zeolite Clay • Arid Region

38. Geological Stratigraphic Column of the Yucca Region

39. Why Yucca Mountain (cont.) • Area would not be explored in the feature • No economic resources • Relatively Stable • Slight Earthquake Hazard • Site must be able to resist some seismic shaking • Volcanic Activity Hazard is low • Federal Land • Population Density is very low

41. Yucca Mountain Continued • President Obama and DOE terminated funds/effort to Yucca Mountain in early 2010 • Due to: • Persistent road blocks • Technical faults • $7 Billion Investment Already • $10 Billion investment to test and study other potential sites

42. President Obama and the Blue Ribbon Commission • Blue Ribbon Commission on America’s Nuclear Future (BRC) • January 29, 2010 • Goal- “Conduct a comprehensive review of policies for managing the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle, including all alternatives for the storage, processing, and disposal of civilian and defense used nuclear fuel [and] high-level waste…” (Carter 81)

43. President Obama and the Blue Ribbon Commission Cont. • Why create a new entity? • Due to DOE’s lack of credibility • Yucca Mountain • Requests new interim facilities of storage, until a permanent one is built, and can receive access to nuclear waste funds • Drawbacks to interim facilities

44. Currently • US has 75,000 metric tons + of nuclear fuel • 122 temporary sites • 39 States across US • Mostly, keep waste on plant site • Major plant sites: • South Carolina • Washington • 104 nuclear reactors currently • Approximately, 2,000 tons of spent nuclear fuel per year • More (in thousands) tons of military, high level waste • Needs a place to stay!

45. Universities that received government R&D funding in 2010 • California State University, Long Beach • Clemson University • Drexel University • Georgia Institute of Technology • Idaho State University • Johns Hopkins University • Mississippi State University • North Carolina State University • Ohio State University • Pennsylvania State University • Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute • University of California, Santa Barbara • University of Cincinnati • University of Florida • University of Michigan • University of Minnesota • University of Missouri, Columbia • University of Nevada, Las Vegas • University of South Carolina • University of Tennessee • University of Washington • University of Wisconsin, Madison • Washington State University

46. More University facts. • In 2011 14 Universities received approximately $12.4 million in funding for research that involved nuclear waste, the fuel cycle and making more efficient reactors.

47. Possible Ways to Deal with Waste • Bacteria have been discovered that make uranium easier to handle, not less radioactive. • Also produces electricity, so multiple benefits but needs more research. • Status quo, no major die offs due to policy as of yet. But much clamoring to get rid of it. • Space is also a possible alternative, but many concerns over reliability/safety.

48. Central Fact • This generation has to begin with a improved commitment to Yucca Mountain for storage and disposal of this hazardous waste

49. Works Cited • "Radiation Risks and Realities." Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Air and Radiation, May 2007. Web. 5 Nov. 2011. <http://epa.gov/radiation/docs/402-k-07-006.pdf> • "Radioactive Wastes: What Health Effects or Risks?" CEA, Jan. 2006. Web. 6 Nov. 2011. <http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs53/pdf-gb/009-11pflury_53gb.pdf> • "What Types of Radiation Are There?" Health Physics Society. 27 Aug. 2011. Web. 06 Nov. 2011. <http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/radiationtypes.html > • "Nuclear Waste." ThinkQuest. Oracle Education Foundation, 2010. Web. 5 Nov. 2011. <http://library.thinkquest.org/3471/nuclear_waste_body.html > • Schmeidler, Emilie and Mayer N Zald. Organizations in the Anti-Nuclear Power Movement: Really A Working Paper. Pella, January 1982. • U.S. Department of State. Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty AMB Treaty. 9 November 2011. <http://www.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm>. • Johansson, Thomas B., and Peter Steen. What To Do With The Radioactive Waste?.Bulletin Of The Atomic Scientists 35.9 (1979): 38-42. Academic Search Complete. Web. 9 Nov. 2011. • Clary, Bruce B. The Enactment Of The Nuclear Waste Policy Act Of 1982: A Multiple Perspectives Explanation. Policy Studies Review 10.4 (1991): 90-102. Academic Search Complete. Web. 9 Nov. 2011.

50. Works Cited • "NRC: About NRC." NRC: Home Page. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. <http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc.html>. • "NRC: Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste." NRC: Home Page. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. <http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/radwaste.html>. • "Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste | Radiation Protection Program: | US EPA." US Environmental Protection Agency. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. <http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/docs/radwaste/402-k-94-001-snf_hlw.html>. • "NOTICE OF AGREEMENT WITH THESTATE OF CALIFORNIA." NRC: Office of Federal and State Materials and Environmental Management Programs. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. <http://nrc-stp.ornl.gov/special/regs/caagreements.pdf>. • http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/images/us_map_pr.gif • http://geology.com/state-map/maps/ohio-county-map.gif • http://www.standupamericaus.org/sua/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/nrc-logo.jpg • http://www.leaking-storage-tank.com/media/2009/05/epa-seal.jpg • http://www.santamonicapropertyblog.com/wp- content/uploads/2010/05/new_doe_seal_color_042808.png • http://ntl.bts.gov/historian/images/DOT%20SEAL-BLUE%20286.jpg